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India
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{{Short description|Country in South Asia}}{{About|the Republic of India}}{{Featured article}}{{pp-move}}{{pp-extended|small=yes}}{{Use Indian English|date=September 2023}}{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
| factoids |
|---|
|titlestyle = background:transparent;color: inherit; text-align:left;
|title = State level and {{nowrap|Eighth Schedule{edih}WEB, 50th Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India (July 2012 to June 2013),nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf, dead,web.archive.org/web/20160708012438/https://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf, 8 July 2016, 26 December 2014, Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India,
|1= 8th Scheduled {{hlist
| Assamese
| Bengali
| Boro
| Dogri
| Gujarati
| Hindi
| Kannada
| Kashmiri
| Konkani
| Maithili
| Malayalam
| Manipuri
| Marathi
| Nepali
| Odia
| Punjabi
| Sanskrit
| Santali
| Sindhi
| Tamil
| Telugu
| Urdu
}}
|2= State level{{efn|Not all the state-level official languages are in the eighth schedule and not all the scheduled languages are state-level official languages. For example, the Sindhi language is an 8th scheduled but not a state-level official language.}} {{hlist
| Kokborok
| Lepcha
| Mizo
| Sikkimese
| all the 8th scheduled languages (except Sindhi, Kashmiri and Dogri{{efn|Kashmiri and Dogri language are the official languages of Jammu and Kashmir which is currently a union territory and no longer the former state.}})
}}
}}| languages_type = Native languages|title = State level and {{nowrap|Eighth Schedule{edih}WEB, 50th Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India (July 2012 to June 2013),nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf, dead,web.archive.org/web/20160708012438/https://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf, 8 July 2016, 26 December 2014, Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India,
|1= 8th Scheduled {{hlist
| Assamese
| Bengali
| Boro
| Dogri
| Gujarati
| Hindi
| Kannada
| Kashmiri
| Konkani
| Maithili
| Malayalam
| Manipuri
| Marathi
| Nepali
| Odia
| Punjabi
| Sanskrit
| Santali
| Sindhi
| Tamil
| Telugu
| Urdu
}}
|2= State level{{efn|Not all the state-level official languages are in the eighth schedule and not all the scheduled languages are state-level official languages. For example, the Sindhi language is an 8th scheduled but not a state-level official language.}} {{hlist
| Kokborok
| Lepcha
| Mizo
| Sikkimese
| all the 8th scheduled languages (except Sindhi, Kashmiri and Dogri{{efn|Kashmiri and Dogri language are the official languages of Jammu and Kashmir which is currently a union territory and no longer the former state.}})
}}
| {{nowrap|{{abbr|dd|day{edih}-{{abbr|mm|month}}-{{abbr|yyyy|year}}}}{{efn|See Date and time notation in India.}}
}}
| 79.8% Hinduism
| 14.2% Islam
| 2.3% Christianity
| 1.7% Sikhism
| 0.7% Buddhism
| 0.4% Jainism
| 0.23% unaffiliated
| 0.65% other
}}| official_website = | today = | iso3166code = IN
}}India, officially the Republic of India (ISO: {{transliteration|hi|ISO|BhÄrat GaṇarÄjya}}),–{{citation|title=The Essential Desk Reference |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yjcOAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA76|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-512873-4|page=76}} “Official name: Republic of India.”;–{{citation|author=John Da Graça|title=Heads of State and Government|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M0YfDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA421 |year=2017|publisher=Macmillan |location=London |isbn=978-1-349-65771-1|page=421}} “Official name: Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya (Hindi)”;–{{citation|author=Graham Rhind |title=Global Sourcebook of Address Data Management: A Guide to Address Formats and Data in 194 Countries |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iGdQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA302|year=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-351-93326-1|page=302}} “Official name: Republic of India; Bharat.”;–{{citation|last=Bradnock|first=Robert W.|title=The Routledge Atlas of South Asian Affairs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zzjbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA108|year=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-40511-5|page=108}} “Official name: English: Republic of India; Hindi:Bharat Ganarajya”;–{{citation|title=Penguin Compact Atlas of the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pLw-ReHIgvQC&pg=PA140|year=2012|publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-7566-9859-1|page=140}} “Official name: Republic of India”;–{{citation|title=Merriam-Webster’s Geographical Dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Co_VIPIJerIC&pg=PA515|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87779-546-9 |edition=3rd |publisher=Merriam-Webster|pages=515–516}} “Officially, Republic of India”;–{{citation|title=Complete Atlas of the World: The Definitive View of the Earth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5moCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54-IA10 |edition=3rd|year=2016|publisher=DK Publishing |isbn=978-1-4654-5528-4|page=54}} “Official name: Republic of India”;–{{citation|title=Worldwide Government Directory with Intergovernmental Organizations 2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQWhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA726|year= 2013|publisher=CQ Press|isbn=978-1-4522-9937-2|page=726}} “India (Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya)” is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area; the most populous country as of June 2023;WEB, Biswas, Soutik, 1 May 2023, Most populous nation: Should India rejoice or panic?,www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-65322706, 3 May 2023, BBC News, British Broadcasting Corporation, BOOK,www.un.org/development/desa/pd/sites/www.un.org.development.desa.pd/files/wpp2022_summary_of_results.pdf, World Population Prospects 2022: Summary of Results, United Nations Department of Social and Economic Affairs, 2022, New York, i, and from the time of its independence in 1947, the world’s most populous democracy.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2012|p=327|ps=: “Even though much remains to be done, especially in regard to eradicating poverty and securing effective structures of governance, India’s achievements since independence in sustaining freedom and democracy have been singular among the world’s new nations.“}}{{Citation |last=Stein |first=Burton |title=A History of India |year=2012 |editor-last=Arnold |editor-first=David |series=The Blackwell History of the World Series |edition=2 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |quote=One of these is the idea of India as ‘the world’s largest democracy’, but a democracy forged less by the creation of representative institutions and expanding electorate under British rule than by the endeavours of India’s founding fathers – Gandhi, Nehru, Patel and Ambedkar – and the labours of the Constituent Assembly between 1946 and 1949, embodied in the Indian constitution of 1950. This democratic order, reinforced by the regular holding of nationwide elections and polling for the state assemblies, has, it can be argued, consistently underpinned a fundamentally democratic state structure – despite the anomaly of the Emergency and the apparent durability of the Gandhi-Nehru dynasty. |author-link=Burton Stein |editor-link=David Arnold (historian)}}{{sfn|Fisher|2018|pp=184–185|ps=: “Since 1947, India’s internal disputes over its national identity, while periodically bitter and occasionally punctuated by violence, have been largely managed with remarkable and sustained commitment to national unity and democracy.“}} Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;{{efn|1 = The Government of India also regards Afghanistan as a bordering country, as it considers all of Kashmir to be part of India. However, this is disputed, and the region bordering Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan. Source: WEB, Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management),mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf, 1 September 2008,web.archive.org/web/20150317182910/https://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf, 17 March 2015, dead, }} China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; its Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand, Myanmar, and Indonesia.Modern humans arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa no later than 55,000 years ago.{{harvnb|Petraglia|Allchin|2007|p=10}}, “Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka.“{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=1}}, “Modern human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. ... it is virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present.“{{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=23}}, “Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago.“Their long occupation, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has made the region highly diverse, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity.{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=28}} Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus river basin 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BCE.(a) {{harvnb|Dyson|2018|pp=4–5}};(b) {{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=33}}By {{BCE|1200}}, an archaic form of Sanskrit, an Indo-European language, had diffused into India from the northwest.BOOK, Lowe, John J.,books.google.com/books?id=L07CBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2, Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The syntax and semantics of adjectival verb forms, Oxford University Press, 2015, 978-0-19-100505-3, 1–2, (The Rigveda) consists of 1,028 hymns (suktas), highly crafted poetic compositions originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were composed between around 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, during the eastward migration of the Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into north India., (a) BOOK, Witzel, Michael, Michael Witzel, Gavin Flood, The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism,books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C&pg=PA68, 2008, John Wiley & Sons, 978-0-470-99868-7, 68–70, Vedas and Upanisads, It is known from internal evidence that the Vedic texts were orally composed in northern India, at first in the Greater Punjab and later on also in more eastern areas, including northern Bihar, between ca. 1500 BCE and ca. 500–400 BCE. The oldest text, the Rgveda, must have been more or less contemporary with the Mitanni texts of northern Syria/Iraq (1450–1350 BCE); ... The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalised early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is in fact something of a tape-recording of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present. (pp. 68–69) ... The RV text was composed before the introduction and massive use of iron, that is before ca. 1200–1000 BCE. (p. 70), (b) {{citation|last=Doniger|first=Wendy|author-link=Wendy Doniger|title=On Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUnaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR18|year= 2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-936009-3|pages=xviii, 10|quote=A Chronology of Hinduism: ca. 1500–1000 BCE Rig Veda; ca. 1200–900 BCE Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda (p. xviii); Hindu texts began with the Rig Veda (’Knowledge of Verses’), composed in northwest India around 1500 BCE (p. 10)}}(c) {{harvnb|Ludden|2014|p=19}}, “In Punjab, a dry region with grasslands watered by five rivers (hence ‘panch’ and ‘ab’) draining the western Himalayas, one prehistoric culture left no material remains, but some of its ritual texts were preserved orally over the millennia. The culture is called Aryan, and evidence in its texts indicates that it spread slowly south-east, following the course of the Yamuna and Ganga Rivers. Its elite called itself Arya (pure) and distinguished themselves sharply from others. Aryans led kin groups organized as nomadic horse-herding tribes. Their ritual texts are called Vedas, composed in Sanskrit. Vedic Sanskrit is recorded only in hymns that were part of Vedic rituals to Aryan gods. To be Aryan apparently meant to belong to the elite among pastoral tribes. Texts that record Aryan culture are not precisely datable, but they seem to begin around 1200 BCE with four collections of Vedic hymns (Rg, Sama, Yajur, and Artharva).“(d) {{harvnb|Dyson|2018|pp=14–15}}, “Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been due to an ‘Aryan invasion’ it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family. ... It seems likely that various small-scale migrations were involved in the gradual introduction of the predecessor language and associated cultural characteristics. However, there may not have been a tight relationship between movements of people on the one hand, and changes in language and culture on the other. Moreover, the process whereby a dynamic new force gradually arose—a people with a distinct ideology who eventually seem to have referred to themselves as ‘Arya’—was certainly two-way. That is, it involved a blending of new features which came from outside with other features—probably including some surviving Harappan influences—that were already present. Anyhow, it would be quite a few centuries before Sanskrit was written down. And the hymns and stories of the Arya people—especially the Vedas and the later Mahabharata and Ramayana epics—are poor guides as to historical events. Of course, the emerging Arya were to have a huge impact on the history of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, little is known about their early presence.”; (e) {{harvnb|Robb|2011|pp=46–}}, “The expansion of Aryan culture is supposed to have begun around 1500 BCE. It should not be thought that this Aryan emergence (though it implies some migration) necessarily meant either a sudden invasion of new peoples, or a complete break with earlier traditions. It comprises a set of cultural ideas and practices, upheld by a Sanskrit-speaking elite, or Aryans. The features of this society are recorded in the Vedas.” Its evidence today is found in the hymns of the Rigveda. Preserved by an oral tradition that was resolutely vigilant, the Rigveda records the dawning of Hinduism in India.(a) {{citation|last1=Jamison|first1=Stephanie|author-link1=Stephanie W. Jamison|last2=Brereton|first2=Joel |title=The Rigveda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LTRDwAAQBAJ|year=2020|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-063339-4|pages=2, 4|quote=The RgVeda is one of the four Vedas, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the earliest evidence for what will become Hinduism. (p. 2) Although Vedic religion is very different in many regards from what is known as Classical Hinduism, the seeds are there. Gods like Visnu and Siva (under the name Rudra), who will become so dominant later, are already present in the Rgveda, though in roles both lesser than and different from those they will later play, and the principal Rgvedic gods like Indra remain in later Hinduism, though in diminished capacity (p. 4).}};(b) {{citation|last=Flood|first=Gavin|author-link=Gavin Flood|editor=Gavin Flood|title=The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Practice: Hindu Practice|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4yT3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|year= 2020|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-105322-1|pages=4–|chapter=Introduction|quote=I take the term ‘Hinduism to meaningfully denote a range and history of practice characterised by a number of features, particularly reference to Vedic textual and sacrificial origins, belonging to endogamous social units (jati/varna), participating in practices that involve making an offering to a deity and receiving a blessing (puja), and a first-level cultural polytheism (although many Hindus adhere to a second-level monotheism in which many gods are regarded as emanations or manifestations of the one, supreme being).}};(c) BOOK, Michaels, Axel, Axel Michaels, Patrick Olivelle, Donald R. Davis, The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Law: A New History of DharmaÅ›Ästra,books.google.com/books?id=QAJCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA86, 2017, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 978-0-19-100709-5, 86–97, Almost all traditional Hindu families observe until today at least three samskaras (initiation, marriage, and death ritual). Most other rituals have lost their popularity, are combined with other rites of passage, or are drastically shortened. Although samskaras vary from region to region, from class (varna) to class, and from caste to caste, their core elements remain the same owing to the common source, the Veda, and a common priestly tradition preserved by the Brahmin priests. (p 86), (d) BOOK, Flood, Gavin D., An Introduction to Hinduism,books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA35, 1996, Cambridge University Press, 978-0-521-43878-0, 35, It is this Sansrit, vedic, tradition which has maintained a continuity into modern times and which has provided the most important resource and inspiration for Hindu traditions and individuals. The Veda is the foundation for most later developments in what is known as Hinduism., The Dravidian languages of India were supplanted in the northern and western regions.{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|pp=16, 25}}By {{BCE|400}}, stratification and exclusion by caste had emerged within Hinduism,{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=16}}and Buddhism and Jainism had arisen, proclaiming social orders unlinked to heredity.{{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=59}}Early political consolidations gave rise to the loose-knit Maurya and Gupta Empires based in the Ganges Basin.(a) {{harvnb|Dyson|2018|pp=16–17}};(b) {{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=67}};(c) {{harvnb|Robb|2011|pp=56–57}};(d) {{harvnb|Ludden|2014|pp=29–30}}.Their collective era was suffused with wide-ranging creativity,(a) {{harvnb|Ludden|2014|pp=28–29}};(b) {{citation|author=Glenn Van Brummelen |editor=Thomas F. Glick |editor2=Steven Livesey |editor3=Faith Wallis |title=Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-45932-1|pages=46–48|chapter=Arithmetic}} but also marked by the declining status of women,(a) {{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=20}};(b) {{harvnb|Stein|2010|p=90}};(c) {{citation |last=Ramusack|first=Barbara N.|editor1=Barbara N. Ramusack |editor2=Sharon L. Sievers |title=Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNi9Jc22OHsC&pg=PA27|year=1999 |publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-21267-7|pages=27–29|chapter=Women in South Asia}} and the incorporation of untouchability into an organised system of belief.{{efn|“A Chinese pilgrim also recorded evidence of the caste system as he could observe it. According to this evidence the treatment meted out to untouchables such as the Chandalas was very similar to that which they experienced in later periods. This would contradict assertions that this rigid form of the caste system emerged in India only as a reaction to the Islamic conquest.“{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p = 93}}}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p = 93}} In South India, the Middle kingdoms exported Dravidian-languages scripts and religious cultures to the kingdoms of Southeast Asia.{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=17}}In the early medieval era, Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism became established on India’s southern and western coasts.(a) {{harvnb|Ludden|2014|p=54}};(b) {{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=78–79}};(c) {{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=76}}Muslim armies from Central Asia intermittently overran India’s northern plains,(a) {{harvnb|Ludden|2014|pp=68–70}};(b) {{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=19, 24}}eventually founding the Delhi Sultanate, and drawing northern India into the cosmopolitan networks of medieval Islam.(a) {{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=48}};(b) {{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=52}}In the 15th century, the Vijayanagara Empire created a long-lasting composite Hindu culture in south India.{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=74}}In the Punjab, Sikhism emerged, rejecting institutionalised religion.{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=267}}The Mughal Empire, in 1526, ushered in two centuries of relative peace,{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=152}}leaving a legacy of luminous architecture.{{efn|“Shah Jahan eventually sent her body 800 km (500 mi) to Agra for burial in the Rauza-i Munauwara (“Illuminated Tomb“) – a personal tribute and a stone manifestation of his imperial power. This tomb has been celebrated globally as the Taj Mahal.“}}{{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=106}}Gradually expanding rule of the British East India Company followed, turning India into a colonial economy, but also consolidating its sovereignty.(a) {{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=289}}(b) {{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=120}} British Crown rule began in 1858. The rights promised to Indians were granted slowly,{{Citation |last=Taylor |first=Miles |title=Crowns and Colonies: European Monarchies and Overseas Empires |pages=38–39 |year=2016 |editor-last=Aldrish, Robert |chapter=The British royal family and the colonial empire from the Georgians to Prince George |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iR3GDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-1-5261-0088-7 |editor2-last=McCreery, Cindy}}{{sfn|Peers|2013|p=76}} but technological changes were introduced, and modern ideas of education and the public life took root.{{Citation |last1=Embree |first1=Ainslie Thomas |title=Sources of Indian Tradition: Modern India and Pakistan |page=85 |year=1988 |chapter=Nationalism Takes Root: The Moderates |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XoMRuiSpBp4C&pg=PA85 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-06414-9 |last2=Hay |first2=Stephen N. |last3=Bary |first3=William Theodore De}} A pioneering and influential nationalist movement emerged, which was noted for nonviolent resistance and became the major factor in ending British rule.{{Citation |last=Marshall |first=P. J. |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire |url={{Google books|S2EXN8JTwAEC|page=PA179|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |page=179 |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-00254-7 |quote=The first modern nationalist movement to arise in the non-European empire, and one that became an inspiration for many others, was the Indian Congress.}}{{Citation |last=Chiriyankandath |first=James |title=Parties and Political Change in South Asia |url={{Google books|c4n7CwAAQBAJ|page=PA2|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |page=2 |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-58620-3 |quote=South Asian parties include several of the oldest in the post-colonial world, foremost among them the 129-year-old Indian National Congress that led India to independence in 1947}} In 1947 the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two independent dominions,{{harvnb|Fisher|2018|pp=173–174}}: “The partition of South Asia that produced India and West and East Pakistan resulted from years of bitter negotiations and recriminations ... The departing British also decreed that the hundreds of princes, who ruled one-third of the subcontinent and a quarter of its population, became legally independent, their status to be settled later. Geographical location, personal and popular sentiment, and substantial pressure and incentives from the new governments led almost all princes eventually to merge their domains into either Pakistan or India. ... Each new government asserted its exclusive sovereignty within its borders, realigning all territories, animals, plants, minerals, and all other natural and human-made resources as either Pakistani or Indian property, to be used for its national development... Simultaneously, the central civil and military services and judiciary split roughly along religious ‘communal’ lines, even as they divided movable government assets according to a negotiated formula: 22.7 percent for Pakistan and 77.3 percent for India.“{{Citation |last1=Chatterji |first1=Joya |title=Routledge Handbook of the South Asian Diaspora |year=2013 |editor-last=Chatterji |editor-first=Joya |chapter=Introduction: Concepts and Questions |place=London and New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-48010-9 |quote=Joya Chatterji describes how the partition of the British Indian empire into the new nation states of India and Pakistan produced new diaspora on a vast, and hitherto unprecedented, scale, but hints that the sheer magnitude of refugee movements in South Asia after 1947 must be understood in the context of pre-existing migratory flows within the partitioned regions (see also Chatterji 2013). She also demonstrates that the new national states of India and Pakistan were quickly drawn into trying to stem this migration. As they put into place laws designed to restrict the return of partition emigrants, this produced new dilemmas for both new nations in their treatment of ‘overseas Indians’; and many of them lost their right to return to their places of origin in the subcontinent, and also their claims to full citizenship in host countries. |last2=Washbrook |first2=David |editor2-last=Washbrook |editor2-first=David}}{{Citation |last1=Talbot |first1=Ian |title=The Partition of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=utKmPQAACAAJ |year=2009 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213073754books.google.com/books?id=utKmPQAACAAJ |url-status=live |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-85661-4 |quote=When the British divided and quit India in August 1947, they not only partitioned the subcontinent with the emergence of the two nations of India and Pakistan but also the provinces of Punjab and Bengal. ... Indeed for many the Indian subcontinent’s division in August 1947 is seen as a unique event which defies comparative historical and conceptual analysis |archive-date=13 December 2016 |last2=Singh |first2=Gurharpal}}{{Citation |last=Khan |first=Yasmin |title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan |page=1 |year=2017 |orig-date=2007 |edition=2nd |place=New Haven and London |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-23032-1 |quote=South Asians learned that the British Indian empire would be partitioned on 3 June 1947. They heard about it on the radio, from relations and friends, by reading newspapers and, later, through government pamphlets. Among a population of almost four hundred million, where the vast majority live in the countryside, ploughing the land as landless peasants or sharecroppers, it is hardly surprising that many thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, did not hear the news for many weeks afterwards. For some, the butchery and forced relocation of the summer months of 1947 may have been the first that they knew about the creation of the two new states rising from the fragmentary and terminally weakened British empire in India |author-link=Yasmin Khan}} a Hindu-majority Dominion of India and a Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan, amid large-scale loss of life and an unprecedented migration.(a) {{harvnb|Copland|2001|pp=71–78}};(b) {{harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=222}}.India has been a federal republic since 1950, governed through a democratic parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society. India’s population grew from 361 million in 1951 to almost 1.4 billion in 2022.{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|pp=219, 262}}During the same time, its nominal per capita income increased from US$64 annually to US$2,601, and its literacy rate from 16.6% to 74%. From being a comparatively destitute country in 1951,{{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=8}} India has become a fast-growing major economy and a hub for information technology services, with an expanding middle class.{{harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2012|pp=265–266}} India has a space programme with several planned or completed extraterrestrial missions. Indian movies, music, and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global culture.{{harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2012|p=266}} India has substantially reduced its rate of poverty, though at the cost of increasing economic inequality.{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=216}} India is a nuclear-weapon state, which ranks high in military expenditure. It has disputes over Kashmir with its neighbours, Pakistan and China, unresolved since the mid-20th century.(a) {{citation |title=Kashmir, region Indian subcontinent |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent |access-date=15 August 2019 |url-access=subscription |quote=Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent{{nbsp}}... has been the subject of dispute between India and Pakistan since the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813203817www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent |archive-date=13 August 2019 |url-status=live}};(b) {{citation |last1=Pletcher |first1=Kenneth |title=Aksai Chin, Plateau Region, Asia |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Aksai-Chin |access-date=16 August 2019 |url-access=subscription |quote=Aksai Chin, Chinese (Pinyin) Aksayqin, portion of the Kashmir region, ... constitutes nearly all the territory of the Chinese-administered sector of Kashmir that is claimed by India |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402090308www.britannica.com/place/Aksai-Chin |archive-date=2 April 2019}};(c) ENCYCLOPEDIA, Kashmir, Encyclopedia Americana: Jefferson to Latin, Scholastic Library Publishing,books.google.com/books?id=l_cWAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA328, 2006, 978-0-7172-0139-6, 328, C. E, Bosworth, KASHMIR, kash’mer, the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent, administered partly by India, partly by Pakistan, and partly by China. The region has been the subject of a bitter dispute between India and Pakistan since they became independent in 1947, Among the socio-economic challenges India faces are gender inequality, child malnutrition,JOURNAL, Narayan, Jitendra, John, Denny, Ramadas, Nirupama, 2018, Malnutrition in India: status and government initiatives, Journal of Public Health Policy, 40, 1, 126–141, 10.1057/s41271-018-0149-5, 0197-5897, 30353132, 53032234, and rising levels of air pollution.JOURNAL, Balakrishnan, Kalpana, Dey, Sagnik, etal, 2019, The impact of air pollution on deaths, disease burden, and life expectancy across the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017, The Lancet Planetary Health, 3, 1, e26–e39, 10.1016/S2542-5196(18)30261-4, 2542-5196, 6358127, 30528905, India’s land is megadiverse, with four biodiversity hotspots.{{Citation |title=India |url=https://www.iucn.org/asia/countries/india |year=2019 |access-date=21 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101033802www.iucn.org/asia/countries/india |url-status=dead |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) |archive-date=1 November 2020}} Its forest cover comprises 21.7% of its area. India’s wildlife, which has traditionally been viewed with tolerance in India’s culture,{{sfn|Karanth|Gopal|2005|p=374}} is supported among these forests, and elsewhere, in protected habitats.| 14.2% Islam
| 2.3% Christianity
| 1.7% Sikhism
| 0.7% Buddhism
| 0.4% Jainism
| 0.23% unaffiliated
| 0.65% other
}}| official_website = | today = | iso3166code = IN
Etymology
According to the Oxford English Dictionary (third edition 2009), the name “India” is derived from the Classical Latin India, a reference to South Asia and an uncertain region to its east. In turn the name “India” derived successively from Hellenistic Greek India ( Ἰνδία), ancient Greek Indos ( Ἰνδός), Old Persian Hindush (an eastern province of the Achaemenid Empire), and ultimately its cognate, the Sanskrit Sindhu, or “river”, specifically the Indus River and, by implication, its well-settled southern basin.{{Citation |title=India (noun) |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/94384#eid677811 |work=Oxford English Dictionary |year=2009 |edition=3rd}} (subscription required){{sfn|Thieme|1970|pp=447–450}} The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi ({{ISO 639-2|GRC|Ἰνδοί}}), which translates as “The people of the Indus”.{{sfn|Kuiper|2010|p = 86}}The term Bharat ({{transliteration|hi|ISO|BhÄrat}}; {{IPA-hns|ˈbʱaËɾət|pron|hi-Bharat.ogg}}), mentioned in both Indian epic poetry and the Constitution of India,{{sfn|Clémentin-Ojha|2014}}{{Citation |title=The Constitution of India |date=1 December 2007 |url=https://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf |access-date=3 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140909230437lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf |url-status=dead |publisher=Ministry of Law and Justice |quote=Article 1(1): India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States. |archive-date=9 September 2014}} is used in its variations by many Indian languages. A modern rendering of the historical name Bharatavarsha, which applied originally to North India,{{Citation |last=Jha |first=Dwijendra Narayan |title=Rethinking Hindu Identity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dqDgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |page=11 |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-49034-0}}{{sfn|Singh|2017|p=253}} Bharat gained increased currency from the mid-19th century as a native name for India.{{sfn|Clémentin-Ojha|2014}}{{sfn|Barrow|2003}}Hindustan ({{IPA-hns|ɦɪndʊˈstaËn||Hindustan.ogg}}) is a Middle Persian name for India that became popular by the 13th century,BOOK, Paturi, Joseph,books.google.com/books?id=oCo5DAAAQBAJ, World Religions & Cults Volume 2: Moralistic, Mythical and Mysticism Religions, Patterson, Roger, 2016, New Leaf Publishing Group, 978-0-89051-922-6, Hodge, Bodie, United States, 59–60, Hinduism (with Hare Krishna), The actual term Hindu first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the Indus River. The term Hindu originated as a geographical term and did not refer to a religion. Later, Hindu was taken by European languages from the Arabic term al-Hind, which referred to the people who lived across the Indus River. This Arabic term was itself taken from the Persian term HindÅ«, which refers to all Indians. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name for India, meaning the “land of Hindus.”, Patterson, Roger, and was used widely since the era of the Mughal Empire. The meaning of Hindustan has varied, referring to a region encompassing present-day northern India and Pakistan or to India in its near entirety.{{sfn|Clémentin-Ojha|2014}}{{sfn|Barrow|2003}}{{Citation |title=Hindustan |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266465/Hindustan |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=17 July 2011}}History
Ancient India
File:Battle at Lanka, Ramayana, Udaipur, 1649-53.jpg|thumb|Manuscript illustration, {{circa|1650}}, of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana, composed in story-telling fashion {{circa|{{BCE|400}}|{{CE|300}}}}BOOK, Lowe, John J.,books.google.com/books?id=nSgmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58, Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan, rightBy 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans, or Homo sapiens, had arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa, where they had earlier evolved. The earliest known modern human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000 years ago. After {{BCE|6500}}, evidence for domestication of food crops and animals, construction of permanent structures, and storage of agricultural surplus appeared in Mehrgarh and other sites in Balochistan, Pakistan.{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|pp = 104–105}} These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp = 21–23}}{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|pp = 104–105}} the first urban culture in South Asia,{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 181}} which flourished during {{BCE|2500–1900}} in Pakistan and western India.{{sfn|Possehl|2003|p = 2}} Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 181}}During the period {{BCE|2000–500}}, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic cultures to the Iron Age ones.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 255}} The Vedas, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism,{{sfn|Singh|2009|pp = 186–187}} were composed during this period,{{sfn|Witzel|2003|pp = 68–69}} and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 255}} Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the north-west.{{Sfn|Singh|2009|pp=186–187}} The caste system, which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure, arose during this period.{{Sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=41–43}} On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation.{{Sfn|Singh|2009|p=255}} In South India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period,{{Sfn|Singh|2009|pp=250–251}} as well as by nearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.{{Sfn|Singh|2009|pp=250–251}}File:Cave 26, Ajanta.jpg|thumb|Cave 26 of the rock-cut rightIn the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the mahajanapadas.{{sfn|Singh|2009|pp = 260–265}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp = 53–54}} The emerging urbanisation gave rise to non-Vedic religious movements, two of which became independent religions. Jainism came into prominence during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira.{{sfn|Singh|2009|pp = 312–313}} Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, attracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp = 54–56}}{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 21}}{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 67–68}} In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up renunciation as an ideal,{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 300}} and both established long-lasting monastic traditions. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Mauryan Empire.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 319}} The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent except the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 78–79}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p = 70}} The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka’s renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 367}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p = 63}}The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between {{BCE|200}} and {{CE|200}}, the southern peninsula was ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with West and Southeast Asia.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 89–90}}{{sfn|Singh|2009|pp = 408–415}} In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 92–95}}{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 319}} By the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created a complex system of administration and taxation in the greater Ganges Plain; this system became a model for later Indian kingdoms.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp = 89–91}}{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 545}} Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion, rather than the management of ritual, began to assert itself.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 98–99}} This renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an urban elite.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 545}} Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics made significant advances.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 545}}Medieval India
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=320| align = left| image_style = border:none;| title =| image1 = Gopuram Corner View of Thanjavur Brihadeeswara Temple..JPGEarly modern India
In the early 16th century, northern India, then under mainly Muslim rulers,{{sfn|Robb|2001|p = 80}} fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 164}} The resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule. Instead, it balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 115}}{{sfn|Robb|2001|pp = 90–91}} and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 17}} leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 152}} Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under Akbar, the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 17}} The Mughal state’s economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 158}} and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 169}} caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 152}} The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India’s economic expansion,{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 152}} resulting in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 186}} Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajputs, and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 23–24}} Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 23–24}} As the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 256}}{{multiple image| perrow = 2/1| total_width = 360| align = right| image_style = border:none;| image1 = Agra Fort DistantTaj.JPG| caption1 = A distant view of the Taj Mahal from the Agra Fort| image2 = India 1835 2 Mohurs.jpgModern India
Historians consider India’s modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885. The appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East India Company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state. These included the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance of the population, and the education of citizens. Technological changes—among them, railways, canals, and the telegraph—were introduced not long after their introduction in Europe.{{sfn|Robb|2001|pp = 151–152}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 94–99}}{{sfn|Brown|1994|p = 83}}{{sfn|Peers|2006|p = 50}} However, disaffection with the company also grew during this time and set off the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive British-style social reforms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, the rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company rule.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 100–103}}{{sfn|Brown|1994|pp = 85–86}} Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858, it led to the dissolution of the East India Company and the direct administration of India by the British government. Proclaiming a unitary state and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 239}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 103–108}} In the decades following, public life gradually emerged all over India, leading eventually to the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885.{{sfn|Robb|2001|p = 183}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1983|pp = 1–4}}{{sfn|Copland|2001|pp = ix–x}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 123}}The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks, and many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far-away markets.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 260}} There was an increase in the number of large-scale famines,{{sfn|Stein|2010|p=245|ps=: An expansion of state functions in British and in princely India occurred as a result of the terrible famines of the later nineteenth century, ... A reluctant regime decided that state resources had to be deployed and that anti-famine measures were best managed through technical experts.}} and, despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for Indians.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 258}} There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 126}} The railway network provided critical famine relief,{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 97}} notably reduced the cost of moving goods,{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 97}} and helped nascent Indian-owned industry.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 126}}{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=360|image_style = border:none;|align = left| image1 = British Indian Empire 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India.jpg| caption1 = 1909 map of the British Indian Empire|image2=Nehru gandhi.jpg|caption2=Jawaharlal Nehru sharing a light moment with Mahatma Gandhi, Mumbai, 6 July 1946}}After World War I, in which approximately one million Indians served,{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 163}} a new period began. It was marked by British reforms but also repressive legislation, by more strident Indian calls for self-rule, and by the beginnings of a nonviolent movement of non-co-operation, of which Mahatma Gandhi would become the leader and enduring symbol.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 167}} During the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted by the British; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 195–197}} The next decade was beset with crises: Indian participation in World War II, the Congress’s final push for non-co-operation, and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism. All were capped by the advent of independence in 1947, but tempered by the partition of India into two states: India and Pakistan.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 203}}Vital to India’s self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, completed in 1950, which put in place a secular and democratic republic.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 231}} Per the London Declaration, India retained its membership of the Commonwealth, becoming the first republic within it.WEB, London Declaration, 1949,thecommonwealth.org/london-declaration-1949, 11 October 2022, Commonwealth, en, Economic liberalisation, which began in the 1980s and the collaboration with Soviet Union for technical know-how,WEB, Role of Soviet Union in India’s industrialisation: a comparative assessment with the West,ijrar.com/upload_issue/ijrar_issue_20544196.pdf, ijrar.com, has created a large urban middle class, transformed India into one of the world’s fastest-growing economies,{{Citation |title=Briefing Rooms: India |url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/India/ |work=Economic Research Service |year=2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520002800www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/India/ |url-status=dead |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |archive-date=20 May 2011}} and increased its geopolitical clout. Yet, India is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty, both rural and urban;{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006 |pp=265–266}} by religious and caste-related violence;{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 266–270}} by Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies;{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 253}} and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in Northeast India.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 274}} It has unresolved territorial disputes with China{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 247–248}} and with Pakistan.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 247–248}} India’s sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world’s newer nations; however, in spite of its recent economic successes, freedom from want for its disadvantaged population remains a goal yet to be achieved.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 304}}Geography
India accounts for the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, lying atop the Indian tectonic plate, a part of the Indo-Australian Plate.{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} India’s defining geological processes began 75 million years ago when the Indian Plate, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a north-eastward drift caused by seafloor spreading to its south-west, and later, south and south-east.{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} Simultaneously, the vast Tethyan oceanic crust, to its northeast, began to subduct under the Eurasian Plate.{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} These dual processes, driven by convection in the Earth’s mantle, both created the Indian Ocean and caused the Indian continental crust eventually to under-thrust Eurasia and to uplift the Himalayas.{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast crescent-shaped trough that rapidly filled with river-borne sediment{{sfn|Dikshit |Schwartzberg|2023|p=7}} and now constitutes the Indo-Gangetic Plain.{{sfn|Prakash et al.|2000}} The original Indian plate makes its first appearance above the sediment in the ancient Aravalli range, which extends from the Delhi Ridge in a southwesterly direction. To the west lies the Thar Desert, the eastern spread of which is checked by the Aravallis.{{harvnb|Kaul|1970|p=160}}, “ The Aravalli range boldy defines the eastern limit of the arid and semi-arid zone. Probably the more humid conditions that prevail near the Aravallis prevented the extension of aridity towards the east and the Ganges Valley. It is noteworthy that, wherever there are gaps in this range, sand has advanced to the east of it.“{{harvnb|Prasad|1974|p=372}}, “ The topography of the Indian Desert is dominated by the Aravalli Ranges on its eastern border, which consist largely of tightly folded and highly metamorphosed Archaean rocks.“{{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=83}}, “ East of the lower Indus lay the inhospitable Rann of Kutch and Thar Desert. East of the upper Indus lay the more promising but narrow corridor between the Himalayan foothills on the north and the Thar Desert and Aravalli Mountains on the south. At the strategic choke point, just before reaching the fertile, well-watered Gangetic plain, sat Delhi. On this site, where life giving streams running off the most northern spur of the rocky Aravalli ridge flowed into the Jumna river, and where the war-horse and war-elephant trade intersected, a series of dynasties built fortified capitals.“{{multiple image| perrow = 1| total_width = 220| image_style = border:none;| align = left| image1 = Tungabhadra River and Coracle Boats.JPGBiodiversity
India is a megadiverse country, a term employed for 17 countries which display high biological diversity and contain many species exclusively indigenous, or endemic, to them.{{Citation |title=Megadiverse Countries |url=https://www.biodiversitya-z.org/content/megadiverse-countries |access-date=17 October 2021 |publisher=Biodiversity A–Z, UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre}} India is a habitat for 8.6% of all mammal species, 13.7% of bird species, 7.9% of reptile species, 6% of amphibian species, 12.2% of fish species, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.WEB, 2012, Animal Discoveries 2011: New Species and New Records,zsi.gov.in/right_menu/Animal_disc/Animal%20Discovery%202011.pdf, dead,web.archive.org/web/20130116214754/https://zsi.gov.in/right_menu/Animal_disc/Animal%20Discovery%202011.pdf, 16 January 2013, 20 July 2012, Zoological Survey of India, {{Citation |last=Puri |first=S. K. |title=Biodiversity Profile of India |url=https://ces.iisc.ernet.in/hpg/cesmg/indiabio.html |work=ces.iisc.ernet.in |access-date=20 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121153614ces.iisc.ernet.in/hpg/cesmg/indiabio.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 November 2011}} Fully a third of Indian plant species are endemic.{{sfn|Basak|1983|p = 24}} India also contains four of the world’s 34 biodiversity hotspots, or regions that display significant habitat loss in the presence of high endemism.{{efn|A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographical region which has more than 1,500 vascular plant species, but less than 30% of its primary habitat.}}{{Citation |last1=Venkataraman |first1=Krishnamoorthy |title=Indian Hotspots: Vertebrate Faunal Diversity, Conservation and Management |page=5 |year=2018 |editor-last=Sivaperuman, Chandrakasan |chapter=Biodiversity Hotspots in India |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8kFKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-981-10-6605-4 |last2=Sivaperuman |first2=Chandrakasan |editor2-last=Venkataraman, Krishnamoorthy}}According to official statistics, India’s forest cover is {{convert|713789|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, which is 21.71% of the country’s total land area.WEB, India State of Forest Report, 2021,fsi.nic.in/forest-report-2021-details, 17 January 2022, Forest Survey of India, National Informatics Centre, It can be subdivided further into broad categories of canopy density, or the proportion of the area of a forest covered by its tree canopy.{{Citation |last=Jha |first=Raghbendra |title=Facets of India’s Economy and Her Society Volume II: Current State and Future Prospects |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9n9SDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA198 |page=198 |year=2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-95342-4}} Very dense forest, whose canopy density is greater than 70%, occupies 3.02% of India’s land area.WEB, Forest Cover in States/UTs in India in 2019,www.frienvis.nic.in/Database/Forest-Cover-in-States-UTs-2019_2478.aspx, 16 October 2021, Forest Research Institute (India), Forest Research Institute via National Informatics Centre, It predominates in the tropical moist forest of the Andaman Islands, the Western Ghats, and Northeast India. Moderately dense forest, whose canopy density is between 40% and 70%, occupies 9.39% of India’s land area. It predominates in the temperate coniferous forest of the Himalayas, the moist deciduous sal forest of eastern India, and the dry deciduous teak forest of central and southern India.{{sfn|Tritsch|2001|pp=11–12}} Open forest, whose canopy density is between 10% and 40%, occupies 9.26% of India’s land area. India has two natural zones of thorn forest, one in the Deccan Plateau, immediately east of the Western Ghats, and the other in the western part of the Indo-Gangetic plain, now turned into rich agricultural land by irrigation, its features no longer visible.{{sfn|Tritsch|2001|p=12|ps=India has two natural zones of thorn forest, one in the rain shadow area of the Deccan Plateau east of the Western Ghats, and the other in the western part of the Indo-Gangetic plain. Growth is limited only by moisture availability in these areas, so with irrigation the fertile alluvial soil of Punjab and Haryana has been turned into India’s prime agricultural area. Much of the thorn forest covering the plains probably had savannah-like features now no longer visible.}}Among the Indian subcontinent’s notable indigenous trees are the astringent Azadirachta indica, or neem, which is widely used in rural Indian herbal medicine,{{Citation |last=Goyal |first=Anupam |title=The WTO and International Environmental Law: Towards Conciliation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UTGQAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA295 |page=295 |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-567710-2}} Quote: “The Indian government successfully argued that the medicinal neem tree is part of traditional Indian knowledge. (page 295)” and the luxuriant Ficus religiosa, or peepul,{{Citation |last=Hughes |first=Julie E. |title=Animal Kingdoms |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL8qWNmpkc0C&pg=PT106 |page=106 |year=2013 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-07480-4 |quote=At same time, the leafy pipal trees and comparative abundance that marked the Mewari landscape fostered refinements unattainable in other lands.}} which is displayed on the ancient seals of Mohenjo-daro,{{Citation |last=Ameri |first=Marta |title=Seals and Sealing in the Ancient World: Case Studies from the Near East, Egypt, the Aegean, and South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SklVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 |pages=156–157 |year=2018 |editor-last=Ameri |editor-first=Marta |chapter=Letting the Pictures Speak: An Image-Based Approach to the Mythological and Narrative Imagery of the Harappan World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-17351-3 |editor2-last=Costello |editor2-first=Sarah Kielt |editor3-last=Jamison |editor3-first=Gregg |editor4-last=Scott |editor4-first=Sarah Jarmer}} Quote: “The last of the centaurs has the long, wavy, horizontal horns of a markhor, a human face, a heavy-set body that appears bovine, and a goat tail ... This figure is often depicted by itself, but it is also consistently represented in scenes that seem to reflect the adoration of a figure in a pipal tree or arbour and which may be termed ritual. These include fully detailed scenes like that visible in the large ‘divine adoration’ seal from Mohenjo-daro.” and under which the Buddha is recorded in the Pali canon to have sought enlightenment.{{Citation |last=Paul Gwynne |title=World Religions in Practice: A Comparative Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdsRKc_knZoC&pg=RA5-PT195 |page=358 |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-6005-9 |quote=The tree under which Sakyamuni became the Buddha is a peepal tree (Ficus religiosa).}}Many Indian species have descended from those of Gondwana, the southern supercontinent from which India separated more than 100 million years ago.{{sfn|Crame|Owen|2002|p = 142}} India’s subsequent collision with Eurasia set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes later caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.{{sfn|Karanth|2006}} Still later, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes flanking the Himalayas.{{sfn|Tritsch|2001|p=14}} This had the effect of lowering endemism among India’s mammals, which stands at 12.6%, contrasting with 45.8% among reptiles and 55.8% among amphibians. Among endemics are the vulnerableJOURNAL, Singh, M., Kumar, A., Molur, S., amp, 2008, Trachypithecus johnii, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 2008, e.T44694A10927987, 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T44694A10927987.en, free, hooded leaf monkeyWEB, Fischer, Johann, Johann Baptist Fischer, Semnopithecus johnii,www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=944270#null, live,web.archive.org/web/20180829072131/https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=944270#null, 29 August 2018, 27 August 2018, ITIS, and the threatenedJOURNAL, S.D. Biju, Sushil Dutta, M.S. Ravichandran Karthikeyan Vasudevan, S.P. Vijayakumar, Chelmala Srinivasulu, Gajanan Dasaramji Bhuddhe, 2004, Duttaphrynus beddomii, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, IUCN, 2004, e.T54584A86543952, 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T54584A11155448.en, free, Beddome’s toadWEB, Frost, Darrel R., 2015, Duttaphrynus beddomii (Günther, 1876),research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Bufonidae/Duttaphrynus/Duttaphrynus-beddomii, live,web.archive.org/web/20150721092639/https://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Bufonidae/Duttaphrynus/Duttaphrynus-beddomii, 21 July 2015, 13 September 2015, Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0, American Museum of Natural History, of the Western Ghats.India contains 172 IUCN-designated threatened animal species, or 2.9% of endangered forms.{{sfn|Mace|1994|p = 4}} These include the endangered Bengal tiger and the Ganges river dolphin. Critically endangered species include the gharial, a crocodilian; the great Indian bustard; and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which has become nearly extinct by having ingested the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.{{Citation |last1=Lovette |first1=Irby J. |title=Handbook of Bird Biology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OGyQDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA599 |page=599 |year=2016 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-29105-4 |last2=Fitzpatrick |first2=John W.}} Before they were extensively used for agriculture and cleared for human settlement, the thorn forests of Punjab were mingled at intervals with open grasslands that were grazed by large herds of blackbuck preyed on by the Asiatic cheetah; the blackbuck, no longer extant in Punjab, is now severely endangered in India, and the cheetah is extinct.{{sfn|Tritsch|2001|p=15|ps=Before it was so heavily settled and intensively exploited, the Punjab was dominated by thorn forest interspersed by rolling grasslands which were grazed on by millions of Blackbuck, accompanied by their dominant predator, the Cheetah. Always keen hunters, the Moghul princes kept tame cheetahs which were used to chase and bring down the Blackbuck. Today the Cheetah is extinct in India and the severely endangered Blackbuck no longer exists in the Punjab.}} The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered Indian wildlife. In response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was expanded substantially. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act{{sfn|Ministry of Environment and Forests 1972}} and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and amendments added in 1988.{{sfn|Department of Environment and Forests|1988}} India hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries and eighteen{{Nbsp}}biosphere reserves,WEB, Biosphere,moef.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/biosphere.pdf, 28 June 2023, four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; seventy-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.WEB, 75 Ramsar Sites in 75th Year of Independence,pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1851484, 28 June 2023, pib.gov.in, File:Panthera tigris tigris Tidoba 20150306.jpg|India has the majority of the world’s wild tigers, approximately 3,170 in 2022.{{Citation |title=Reviving the Roar: India’s Tiger Population Is On the Rise |date=13 April 2023 |url=https://www.goodgoodgood.co/articles/india-tiger-population-good-news |access-date=15 April 2023}}File:Axis axis (Nagarhole, 2010).jpg|A chital (Axis axis) stag in the Nagarhole National Park in a region covered by a moderately dense{{efn|A forest cover is moderately dense if between 40% and 70% of its area is covered by its tree canopy.}} forest.File:Maharajah Ramanuj Pratap Singh Deo with cheetah kill 1948 BNHS.jpg|Three of the last Asiatic cheetahs in India were shot dead in 1948 in Surguja district, Madhya Pradesh, Central India by Maharajah Ramanuj Pratap Singh Deo. The young male cheetahs, all from the same litter, were sitting together when they were shot at night.Politics and government
Politics
{{multiple image| perrow = 1| total_width = 220| image_style = border:none;| align = left| image1 = Rajagopal speaking to 25,000 people, Janadesh 2007, India.jpgGovernment
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;| align = left |image1=Rashtrapati Bhavan Wide New Delhi India.jpg|caption1=Rashtrapati Bhavan, the official residence of the President of India, was designed by British architects Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker for the Viceroy of India, and constructed between 1911 and 1931 during the British Raj.{{Citation |last=Bremner |first=G. A. |title=Architecture and Urbanism in the British Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjRADQAAQBAJ&pg=PA117 |page=117 |year=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-102232-6}}}}India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of India—the country’s supreme legal document. It is a constitutional republic.Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the union and the states. The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26 January 1950,{{sfn|Pylee|2003a|p = 4}} originally stated India to be a “sovereign, democratic republic;” this characterisation was amended in 1971 to “a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic”.{{sfn|Dutt|1998|p = 421}} India’s form of government, traditionally described as “quasi-federal” with a strong centre and weak states,{{sfn|Wheare|1980|p = 28}} has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic, and social changes.{{sfn|Echeverri-Gent|2002|pp = 19–20}}{{sfn|Sinha|2004|p = 25}}| factoids |
|---|
- Executive: The President of India is the ceremonial head of state,{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 31}} who is elected indirectly for a five-year term by an electoral college comprising members of national and state legislatures.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 138}}{{sfn|Gledhill|1970|p = 112}} The Prime Minister of India is the head of government and exercises most executive power.{{sfn|Sharma|1950}} Appointed by the president,{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 162}} the prime minister is by convention supported by the party or political alliance having a majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.{{sfn|Sharma|1950}} The executive of the Indian government consists of the president, the vice-president, and the Union Council of Ministers—with the cabinet being its executive committee—headed by the prime minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 31}} In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature; the prime minister and their council are directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament. Civil servants act as permanent executives and all decisions of the executive are implemented by them.{{sfn|Mathew|2003|p = 524}}
- Legislature: The legislature of India is the bicameral parliament. Operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system, it comprises an upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and a lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of the People).{{sfn|Gledhill|1970|p = 127}} The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body of 245{{Nbsp}}members who serve staggered six-year terms.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 161}} Most are elected indirectly by the state and union territorial legislatures in numbers proportional to their state’s share of the national population.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 162}} All but two of the Lok Sabha’s 545{{Nbsp}}members are elected directly by popular vote; they represent single-member constituencies for five-year{{Nbsp}}terms.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 143}} Two seats of parliament, reserved for Anglo-Indians in the article 331, have been scrapped.WEB, 5 December 2019, Cabinet approves scrapping of 2 seats reserved for Anglo-Indians in Parliament,www.nationalheraldindia.com/india/seats-reserved-for-anglo-indians-in-parliament-to-be-scrapped-after-cabinet-approval, 17 October 2021, National Herald, WEB, Ghosh, Abantika, Kaushal, Pradeep, 2 January 2020, Explained: Anglo-Indian quota, its history, MPs,indianexpress.com/article/explained/anglo-indian-quota-history-mps-6164232/, 17 October 2021, The Indian Express,
- Judiciary: India has a three-tier{{Nbsp}}unitary independent judiciary{{sfn|Neuborne|2003|p = 478}} comprising the supreme court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, 25{{Nbsp}}high courts, and a large number of trial courts.{{sfn|Neuborne|2003|p = 478}} The supreme court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the centre and has appellate jurisdiction over the high courts.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|pp = 238, 255}} It has the power to both strike down union or state laws which contravene the constitution{{sfn|Sripati|1998|pp=423–424}} and invalidate any government action it deems unconstitutional.{{sfn|Pylee|2003b|p = 314}}
Administrative divisions
{{See also|Political integration of India}}India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories.{{sfn|Library of Congress|2004}} All states, as well as the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir, Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments following the Westminster system of governance. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the central government through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 49}} There are over a quarter of a million local government bodies at city, town, block, district and village levels.WEB, India,www.clgf.org.uk/regions/clgf-asia/india/, live,web.archive.org/web/20190715203036/https://www.clgf.org.uk/regions/clgf-asia/india/, 15 July 2019, 7 September 2019, Commonwealth Local Government Forum, {{Indian states and territories image map|image-width=330}}States
{hide}columns-list |colwidth=18em|- Andhra Pradesh
- Arunachal Pradesh
- Assam
- Bihar
- Chhattisgarh
- Goa
- Gujarat
- Haryana
- Himachal Pradesh
- Jharkhand
- Karnataka
- Kerala
- Madhya Pradesh
- Maharashtra
- Manipur
- Meghalaya
- Mizoram
- Nagaland
- Odisha
- Punjab
- Rajasthan
- Sikkim
- Tamil Nadu
- Telangana
- Tripura
- Uttar Pradesh
- Uttarakhand
- West Bengal
Union territories
{{columns-list |colwidth=18em|{{ordered list |type=upper-alpha| Andaman and Nicobar Islands| Chandigarh| Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and DiuForeign, economic and strategic relations
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;|align = rightEconomy
{{multiple image|direction= vertical|width= 220| align = right| image_style = border:none;| image1 = Plowing the land in India - modern and traditional.jpgIndustries
{{multiple image| perrow = 1| total_width = 220| image_style = border:none;| align = right| image1 = Cherry Resort inside Temi Tea Garden, Namchi, Sikkim.jpg| caption1 = A tea garden in Sikkim. India, the world’s second-largest producer of tea, is a nation of one billion tea drinkers, who consume 70% of India’s tea output.}}India’s telecommunication industry is the second-largest in the world with over 1.2 billion subscribers. It contributes 6.5% to India’s GDP.WEB, Indian Telecom Industry – Telecom Sector, FDI, Opportunities,www.investindia.gov.in/sector/telecom,web.archive.org/web/20210518111147/https://www.investindia.gov.in/sector/telecom, 18 May 2021, investindia.gov.in, After the third quarter of 2017, India surpassed the US to become the second-largest smartphone market in the world after China.{{Citation |last=Khan |first=Danish |title=Indian smartphone market grows 23% to overtake US in Q3; Samsung, Xiaomi drive shipments |date=28 October 2017 |url=https://telecom.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/indian-smartphone-market-grows-23-to-overtake-us-in-q3-samsung-xiaomi-drive-shipments/61255184 |work=The Economic Times |access-date=5 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031155522telecom.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/indian-smartphone-market-grows-23-to-overtake-us-in-q3-samsung-xiaomi-drive-shipments/61255184 |archive-date=31 October 2017}}The Indian automotive industry, the world’s second-fastest growing, increased domestic sales by 26% during 2009–2010,{{sfn|Business Line 2010}} and exports by 36% during 2008–2009.{{sfn|Express India 2009}} In 2022, India became the world’s third-largest vehicle market after China and the United States, surpassing Japan.NEWS, 10 January 2023, India beats Japan to become world’s third-largest vehicle market, The Times of India,timesofindia.indiatimes.com/auto/news/india-beats-japan-to-become-worlds-third-largest-vehicle-market/articleshow/96874402.cms, 7 June 2023, 0971-8257, At the end of 2011, the Indian IT industry employed 2.8 million professionals, generated revenues close to US$100 billion equalling 7.5% of Indian GDP, and contributed 26% of India’s merchandise exports.{{sfn|Nasscom 2011–2012}}The pharmaceutical industry in India emerged as a global player. As of 2021, with 3000 pharmaceutical companies and 10,500 manufacturing units India is the world’s third-largest pharmaceutical producer, largest producer of generic medicines and supply up to 50—60% of global vaccines demand, these all contribute up to {{USD}}24.44 billions in exports and India’s local pharmaceutical market is estimated up to {{USD}}42 billion.NEWS, 16 September 2021, Indian Pharma: a strategic sector from ‘Make in India’ to ‘Make and Develop in India’, The Financial Express (India),www.financialexpress.com/lifestyle/health/indian-pharma-a-strategic-sector-from-make-in-india-to-make-and-develop-in-india/2331377/, 18 October 2021, WEB, 12 October 2021, Indian Pharmaceutical Industry,www.ibef.org/industry/pharmaceutical-india.aspx, 18 October 2021, India Brand Equity Foundation, India is among the top 12 biotech destinations in the world.Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Sector in India: sector briefing by the UK Trade and Investment 2011, utki.gov.uk{{sfn|Yep|2011}} The Indian biotech industry grew by 15.1% in 2012–2013, increasing its revenues from {{INR}}204.4 billion (Indian rupees) to {{INR}}235.24 billion (US$3.94 billion at June 2013 exchange rates).WEB, 24 June 2013, Biotechnology in India – 2013 “biospectrum-able” Survey,www.differding.com/page/biotechnology_in_india_2013_biospectrum_able_survey/f1.html,web.archive.org/web/20140223203715/https://www.differding.com/page/biotechnology_in_india_2013_biospectrum_able_survey/f1.html, 23 February 2014, 4 April 2014, Differding.com,Energy
India’s capacity to generate electrical power is 300 gigawatts, of which 42 gigawatts is renewable.WEB, 1 August 2016, India’s Total Power Generation Capacity Crosses 300 GW Mark,www.ndtv.com/india-news/indias-total-power-generation-capacity-crosses-300-gw-mark-1438906,web.archive.org/web/20170616181350/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/indias-total-power-generation-capacity-crosses-300-gw-mark-1438906, 16 June 2017, 17 October 2021, NDTV India, NDTV, The country’s usage of coal is a major cause of greenhouse gas emissions by India but its renewable energy is competing strongly.NEWS, Rowlatt, Justin, 12 May 2020, India’s carbon emissions fall for first time in four decades, en-GB, BBC News,www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-52614770, 3 December 2020, India emits about 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions. This equates to about 2.5 tons of carbon dioxide per person per year, which is half the world average.WEB, USAID, September 2018, Greenhouse Gas Emissions in India,www.climatelinks.org/sites/default/files/asset/document/India%20GHG%20Emissions%20Factsheet%20FINAL.pdf, 10 June 2021, WEB, UN Environment Programme, 2019, Emissions Gap Report 2019,www.unenvironment.org/resources/emissions-gap-report-2019, 10 June 2021, UNEP – UN Environment Programme, Increasing access to electricity and clean cooking with liquefied petroleum gas have been priorities for energy in India.WEB, India 2020 – Analysis, 9 January 2020,www.iea.org/reports/india-2020, 3 December 2020, International Energy Agency, en-GB,Socio-economic challenges
{{multiple image| perrow = 1| total_width = 220| align = right| image_style = border:none;| image1 = Female health workers in India (34332433890).jpgDemographics, languages and religion
{{See also|South Asian ethnic groups}}{{multiple image|perrow = 1|total_width = 180| align = right| title = India by languageCulture
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;|align = right |image1=Sikh pilgrim at the Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib) in Amritsar, India.jpg|caption1=A Sikh pilgrim at the Harmandir Sahib, or Golden Temple, in Amritsar, Punjab }}Indian cultural history spans more than {{nowrap|4,500 years}}.{{sfn|Kuiper|2010|p = 15}} During the Vedic period ({{Circa|{{BCE|1700}}|{{BCE|500}}}}), the foundations of Hindu philosophy, mythology, theology and literature were laid, and many beliefs and practices which still exist today, such as dhárma, kárma, yóga, and moká¹£a, were established.{{sfn|Kuiper|2010|p = 86}} India is notable for its religious diversity, with Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and Jainism among the nation’s major religions.{{sfn|Heehs|2002|pp = 2–5}} The predominant religion, Hinduism, has been shaped by various historical schools of thought, including those of the Upanishads,{{sfn|Deutsch|1969|pp = 3, 78}} the Yoga Sutras, the Bhakti movement,{{sfn|Heehs|2002|pp = 2–5}} and by Buddhist philosophy.{{sfn|Nakamura|1999}}Visual art
India has a very ancient tradition of art, which has exchanged many influences with the rest of Eurasia, especially in the first millennium, when Buddhist art spread with Indian religions to Central, East and Southeast Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.Rowland, 185–198, 252, 385–466 Thousands of seals from the Indus Valley Civilization of the third millennium BCE have been found, usually carved with animals, but a few with human figures. The “Pashupati” seal, excavated in Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, in 1928–29, is the best known.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=14–16}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=17–18}} After this there is a long period with virtually nothing surviving.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=17–18}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=46–47}} Almost all surviving ancient Indian art thereafter is in various forms of religious sculpture in durable materials, or coins. There was probably originally far more in wood, which is lost. In north India Mauryan art is the first imperial movement.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=35–46}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=67–70}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=22–24}} In the first millennium CE, Buddhist art spread with Indian religions to Central, East and Southeast Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=185–198, 252, 385–466}} Over the following centuries a distinctly Indian style of sculpting the human figure developed, with less interest in articulating precise anatomy than ancient Greek sculpture but showing smoothly flowing forms expressing prana (“breath” or life-force).{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=22, 88}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=35, 99–100}} This is often complicated by the need to give figures multiple arms or heads, or represent different genders on the left and right of figures, as with the Ardhanarishvara form of Shiva and Parvati.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=18–19}}{{Sfn|Blurton|1993|p=151}}Most of the earliest large sculpture is Buddhist, either excavated from Buddhist stupas such as Sanchi, Sarnath and Amaravati,{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=32–38}} or is rock cut reliefs at sites such as Ajanta, Karla and Ellora. Hindu and Jain sites appear rather later.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=43–55}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=113–119}} In spite of this complex mixture of religious traditions, generally, the prevailing artistic style at any time and place has been shared by the major religious groups, and sculptors probably usually served all communities.{{Sfn|Blurton|1993|pp=10–11}} Gupta art, at its peak {{circa|{{CE|300}}|{{CE|500}}}}, is often regarded as a classical period whose influence lingered for many centuries after; it saw a new dominance of Hindu sculpture, as at the Elephanta Caves.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=111–121}}{{Sfn|Michell|2000|pp=44–70}} Across the north, this became rather stiff and formulaic after {{circa|{{CE|800}}}}, though rich with finely carved detail in the surrounds of statues.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=212–216}} But in the South, under the Pallava and Chola dynasties, sculpture in both stone and bronze had a sustained period of great achievement; the large bronzes with Shiva as Nataraja have become an iconic symbol of India.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=152–160}}{{Sfn|Blurton|1993|pp=225–227}}Ancient painting has only survived at a few sites, of which the crowded scenes of court life in the Ajanta Caves are by far the most important, but it was evidently highly developed, and is mentioned as a courtly accomplishment in Gupta times.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=356–361}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=242–251}} Painted manuscripts of religious texts survive from Eastern India about the 10th century onwards, most of the earliest being Buddhist and later Jain. No doubt the style of these was used in larger paintings.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=361–370}} The Persian-derived Deccan painting, starting just before the Mughal miniature, between them give the first large body of secular painting, with an emphasis on portraits, and the recording of princely pleasures and wars.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=202–208}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=372–382, 400–406}} The style spread to Hindu courts, especially among the Rajputs, and developed a variety of styles, with the smaller courts often the most innovative, with figures such as Nihâl Chand and Nainsukh.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=222–243}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=384–397, 407–420}} As a market developed among European residents, it was supplied by Company painting by Indian artists with considerable Western influence.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|p=243}}{{Sfn|Michell|2000|p=210}} In the 19th century, cheap Kalighat paintings of gods and everyday life, done on paper, were urban folk art from Calcutta, which later saw the Bengal School of Art, reflecting the art colleges founded by the British, the first movement in modern Indian painting.{{Sfn|Michell|2000|pp=210–211}}{{Sfn|Blurton|1993|p=211}}File:Bhutesvara Yakshis Mathura reliefs 2nd century CE front.jpg|Bhutesvara Yakshis, Buddhist reliefs from Mathura, {{CE|2nd century}}File:MET DT5237 (cropped).jpg|Gupta terracotta relief, Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi, 5th centuryFile:Elephanta Caves (27804449706) (cropped).jpg|Elephanta Caves, triple-bust (trimurti) of Shiva, {{convert|18|ft|m}} tall, {{circa|550}}File:Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja).jpg|Chola bronze of Shiva as Nataraja (“Lord of Dance“), Tamil Nadu, 10th or 11th centuryFile:Jahangir Receives Prince Khurram at Ajmer on His Return from the Mewar Campaign.jpg|Jahangir Receives Prince Khurram at Ajmer on His Return from the Mewar Campaign, Balchand, {{circa|1635}}File:Unknown, Kangra, India - Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids - Google Art Project.jpg|Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids, Kangra painting, 1775–1785Architecture
{{multiple image| perrow = 1| total_width = 250| image_style = border:none;| align = left| image1 = Aks The Reflection Taj Mahal.jpg| caption1 = The Taj Mahal from across the Yamuna river showing two outlying red sandstone buildings, a mosque on the right (west) and a jawab (response) thought to have been built for architectural balance}}Much of Indian architecture, including the Taj Mahal, other works of Indo-Islamic Mughal architecture, and South Indian architecture, blends ancient local traditions with imported styles.{{sfn|Kuiper|2010|pp = 296–329}} Vernacular architecture is also regional in its flavours. Vastu shastra, literally “science of construction” or “architecture” and ascribed to Mamuni Mayan,{{sfn|Silverman|2007|p = 20}} explores how the laws of nature affect human dwellings;{{sfn|Kumar|2000|p=5}} it employs precise geometry and directional alignments to reflect perceived cosmic constructs.{{sfn|Roberts|2004|p=73}} As applied in Hindu temple architecture, it is influenced by the Shilpa Shastras, a series of foundational texts whose basic mythological form is the Vastu-Purusha mandala, a square that embodied the “absolute”.{{sfn|Lang|Moleski|2010|pp = 151–152}} The Taj Mahal, built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by orders of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, has been described in the UNESCO World Heritage List as “the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world’s heritage”.{{sfn|United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation}} Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, developed by the British in the late 19th century, drew on Indo-Islamic architecture.{{sfn|Chopra|2011|p = 46}}Literature
The earliest literature in India, composed between {{BCE|1500}} and {{CE|1200}}, was in the Sanskrit language.{{sfn|Hoiberg|Ramchandani|2000}} Major works of Sanskrit literature include the Rigveda ({{circa|{{BCE|1500}}|{{BCE|1200}}}}), the epics: MahÄbhÄrata ({{circa|{{BCE|400}}|{{CE|400}}}}) and the Ramayana ({{circa|{{BCE|300}}}} and later); AbhijñÄnaÅ›Äkuntalam (The Recognition of ÅšakuntalÄ, and other dramas of KÄlidÄsa ({{circa|{{CE|5th century}}}}) and MahÄkÄvya poetry.{{sfn|Johnson|2008}}{{sfn|MacDonell|2004|pp=1–40}}{{sfn|KÄlidÄsa|Johnson|2001}} In Tamil literature, the Sangam literature ({{circa|{{BCE|600}}|{{BCE|300}}}}) consisting of 2,381 poems, composed by 473 poets, is the earliest work.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1997|p = 12}}{{sfn|Hart|1975}}{{sfn|Ramanujan|1985|pp=ix–x}}{{citation|title=Tamil Literature|year=2008|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Tamil-literature|access-date=12 February 2022}} From the 14th to the 18th centuries, India’s literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of devotional poets like KabÄ«r, TulsÄ«dÄs, and Guru NÄnak. This period was characterised by a varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression; as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.{{sfn|Das|2005}} In the 19th century, Indian writers took a new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions. In the 20th century, Indian literature was influenced by the works of the Bengali poet, author and philosopher Rabindranath Tagore,{{sfn|Datta|2006}} who was a recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature.Performing arts and media
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=180|image_style = border:none;| align = right |image1=Kuchipudi Performer DS.jpg|caption1=India’s National Academy of Performance Arts has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be classical. One such is Kuchipudi shown here. }}Indian music ranges over various traditions and regional styles. Classical music encompasses two genres and their various folk offshoots: the northern Hindustani and the southern Carnatic schools.{{sfn|Massey|Massey|1998}} Regionalised popular forms include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter. Indian dance also features diverse folk and classical forms. Among the better-known folk dances are: bhangra of Punjab, bihu of Assam, Jhumair and chhau of Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal, garba and dandiya of Gujarat, ghoomar of Rajasthan, and lavani of Maharashtra. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India’s National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Odisha, and the sattriya of Assam.{{citation|title=South Asian Arts: Indian Dance|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/556016/South-Asian-arts/65246/Indian-dance |access-date=17 July 2011}}Theatre in India melds music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.{{sfn|Lal|2004|pp = 23, 30, 235}} Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances or social and political events, Indian theatre includes: the bhavai of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, tamasha of Maharashtra, burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka.{{sfn|Karanth|2002|p = 26}} India has a theatre training institute the National School of Drama (NSD) that is situated at New Delhi. It is an autonomous organisation under the Ministry of culture, Government of India.WEB,www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090315/spectrum/main1.htm, In step with the times: Chaman Ahuja on how the National School of Drama has evolved over the past 50 years, The Tribune, 15 March 2009, 4 October 2017,web.archive.org/web/20171010083957/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090315/spectrum/main1.htm, 10 October 2017, The Indian film industry produces the world’s most-watched cinema.{{sfn|Dissanayake|Gokulsing|2004}} Established regional cinematic traditions exist in the Assamese, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Hindi, Kannada, Malayalam, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Odia, Tamil, and Telugu languages.{{sfn|Rajadhyaksha|Willemen|1999|page = 652}} The Hindi language film industry (Bollywood) is the largest sector representing 43% of box office revenue, followed by the South Indian Telugu and Tamil film industries which represent 36% combined.WEB,www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/in/Documents/technology-media-telecommunications/in-tmt-economic-contribution-of-motion-picture-and-television-industry-noexp.pdf, Economic Contribution of the Indian Motion Picture and Television Industry, Deloitte, March 2014, 21 April 2014, Television broadcasting began in India in 1959 as a state-run medium of communication and expanded slowly for more than two decades.{{sfn|Narayan|2013|pp=66–67}}{{sfn|Kaminsky|Long|2011|pp = 684–692}} The state monopoly on television broadcast ended in the 1990s. Since then, satellite channels have increasingly shaped the popular culture of Indian society.{{sfn|Mehta|2008|pp = 1–10}} Today, television is the most penetrative media in India; industry estimates indicate that {{As of|2012|lc=y}} there are over 554 million TV consumers, 462 million with satellite or cable connections compared to other forms of mass media such as the press (350 million), radio (156 million) or internet (37 million).{{sfn|Hansa Research|2012}}Society
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;| align = left |image1=Muslims praying in mosque in Srinagar, Kashmir.jpg|caption1=Muslims offer namaz at a mosque in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir.}}Traditional Indian society is sometimes defined by social hierarchy. The Indian caste system embodies much of the social stratification and many of the social restrictions found on the Indian subcontinent. Social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jÄtis, or “castes”.{{sfn|Schwartzberg|2011}} India abolished untouchability in 1950 with the adoption of the constitution and has since enacted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives.Family values are important in the Indian tradition, and multi-generational patrilineal joint families have been the norm in India, though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas.{{sfn|Makar|2007}} An overwhelming majority of Indians, with their consent, have their marriages arranged by their parents or other family elders.{{sfn|Medora|2003}} Marriage is thought to be for life,{{sfn|Medora|2003}} and the divorce rate is extremely low,{{sfn|Jones|Ramdas|2005|p = 111}} with less than one in a thousand marriages ending in divorce.NEWS,www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-37481054, What divorce and separation tell us about modern India, Soutik, Biswas, 29 September 2016, 18 October 2021, BBC News, Child marriages are common, especially in rural areas; many women wed before reaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age.{{sfn|Cullen-Dupont|2009|p = 96}} Female infanticide in India, and lately female foeticide, have created skewed gender ratios; the number of missing women in the country quadrupled from 15 million to 63 million in the 50-year period ending in 2014, faster than the population growth during the same period, and constituting 20 percent of India’s female electorate.NEWS,www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/indias-missing-women/article5670801.ece, India’s missing women, The Hindu, 10 February 2014, Kapoor, Mudit, Shamika, Ravi, 17 November 2019, In the last 50 years of Indian democracy, the absolute number of missing women has increased fourfold from 15 million to 68 million. This is not merely a reflection of the growth in the overall population, but, rather, of the fact that this dangerous trend has worsened with time. As a percentage of the female electorate, missing women have gone up significantly — from 13 per cent to approximately 20 per cent, According to an Indian government study, an additional 21 million girls are unwanted and do not receive adequate care.WEB,www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/30/more-than-63-million-women-missing-in-india-statistics-show, More than 63 million women ‘missing’ in India, statistics show, Associated Press via The Guardian, 30 January 2018, 17 November 2019, Quote: “More than 63 million women are “missing” statistically across India, and more than 21 million girls are unwanted by their families, government officials say. The skewed ratio of men to women is largely the result of sex-selective abortions, and better nutrition and medical care for boys, according to the government’s annual economic survey, which was released on Monday. In addition, the survey found that “families where a son is born are more likely to stop having children than families where a girl is born”. Despite a government ban on sex-selective foeticide, the practice remains commonplace in India, the result of a preference for boys in a patriarchal society.WEB,foreignpolicy.com/2019/08/15/a-generation-of-girls-is-missing-in-india/, A Generation of Girls Is Missing in India – Sex-selective abortion fuels a cycle of patriarchy and abuse., Foreign Policy, Ira, Trivedi, 15 August 2019, 17 November 2019, Quote: “Although it has been illegal nationwide for doctors to disclose the sex of a fetus since the 1994 Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, the ease of ordering cheap and portable ultrasound machines, especially online, has kept the practice of sex-selective abortions alive.” The payment of dowry, although illegal, remains widespread across class lines.NEWS, Dean, Nelson,www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/10280802/Woman-killed-over-dowry-every-hour-in-India.html, Woman killed over dowry ‘every hour’ in India, The Daily Telegraph, 10 February 2014, 2 September 2013,web.archive.org/web/20140323074436/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/10280802/Woman-killed-over-dowry-every-hour-in-India.html, 23 March 2014, Deaths resulting from dowry, mostly from bride burning, are on the rise, despite stringent anti-dowry laws.NEWS,www.thehindu.com/news/national/rising-number-of-dowry-deaths-in-india-ncrb/article4995677.ece, Rising number of dowry deaths in India: NCRB, The Hindu, 10 February 2014, Ignatius, Pereira, 6 August 2013,web.archive.org/web/20140207050439/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/rising-number-of-dowry-deaths-in-india-ncrb/article4995677.ece, 7 February 2014, Many Indian festivals are religious in origin. The best known include Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Thai Pongal, Holi, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, and Vaisakhi.{{citation|url=https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/Festivals/Festiv.html|title=Indian Festivals|website=sscnet.ucla.edu|publisher=University of California, Los Angeles |access-date=14 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701222430www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/Festivals/Festiv.html|archive-date=1 July 2016}}{{citation |title=Popular India Festivals |url=https://festivals.indobase.com/index.html |website=festivals.indobase.com |access-date=23 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728120656festivals.indobase.com/index.html |archive-date=28 July 2011}}Education
File:47 Raika School - eating together (3384824242).jpg|thumb|right|220px|Children awaiting school lunch in Rayka (also Raika), a village in rural Gujarat. The salutation Jai Bhim written on the blackboard honours the jurist, social reformer, and Dalit leader B. R. AmbedkarB. R. AmbedkarIn the 2011 census, about 73% of the population was literate, with 81% for men and 65% for women. This compares to 1981 when the respective rates were 41%, 53% and 29%. In 1951 the rates were 18%, 27% and 9%. In 1921 the rates 7%, 12% and 2%. In 1891 they were 5%, 9% and 1%,JOURNAL, Rajni, Pathania, Literacy in India: Progress and Inequality,www.bangladeshsociology.org/LiteracyinIndiaBEJS17.1.pdf, 17, bangladeshsociology.org, Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology, January 2020, 1, 18 October 2021, WEB, Dandapani, Natarajan, Extracts from the All India Census Reports on Literacy,lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/366/1/26501_1971_CEN.pdf, Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India, Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India, 1971, 18 October 2021, According to Latika Chaudhary, in 1911 there were under three primary schools for every ten villages. Statistically, more caste and religious diversity reduced private spending. Primary schools taught literacy, so local diversity limited its growth.JOURNAL, Latika, Chaudhary, Determinants of primary schooling in British India, Journal of Economic History, March 2009, 69, 269–302, 1,www.researchgate.net/publication/231178962, 10.1017/S0022050709000400, 21620741, The education system of India is the world’s second-largest.WEB,www.studyinindia.gov.in/whyindiaeducation, Study in India, studyinindia.gov.in, 18 October 2021, India has over 900 universities, 40,000 collegesWEB,economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/hrd-to-increase-nearly-25-pc-seats-in-varsities-to-implement-10-pc-quota-for-poor-in-gen-category/articleshow/67545006.cms, HRD to increase nearly 25 pc seats in varsities to implement 10 pc quota for poor in gen category, The Economic Times, 15 January 2019, 18 October 2021, and 1.5 million schools.WEB,dashboard.udiseplus.gov.in/#/home, UDISE+ Dashboard, dashboard.udiseplus.gov.in, Ministry of Education (India), Ministry of Education, 18 October 2021, In India’s higher education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under affirmative action policies for the historically disadvantaged. In recent decades India’s improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to its economic development.WEB,www.sify.com/finance/fullstory.php?id=1475704,web.archive.org/web/20140220170624/https://www.sify.com/finance/india-achieves-27-decline-in-poverty-news-news-jegxaXgfcab.html, India achieves 27% decline in poverty, Press Trust of India via Sify.com, 12 September 2008, 20 February 2014, 18 October 2021, dead, BOOK, N. Jayapalan, History of Education in India,books.google.com/books?id=IDNeW78fedkC, 2005, Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, 978-81-7156-922-9,Clothing
{{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width = 360| align = right| image_style = border:none;| image1 = India School.jpg| caption1 = Women in sari at an adult literacy class in Tamil Nadu| image2 = Water pump, Varanasi (15563170660) Cropped.jpg| caption2 = A man in dhoti and wearing a woollen shawl, in Varanasi}}From ancient times until the advent of the modern, the most widely worn traditional dress in India was draped.{{harvnb|Tarlo|1996|p=26}} For women it took the form of a sari, a single piece of cloth many yards long. The sari was traditionally wrapped around the lower body and the shoulder. In its modern form, it is combined with an underskirt, or Indian petticoat, and tucked in the waist band for more secure fastening. It is also commonly worn with an Indian blouse, or choli, which serves as the primary upper-body garment, the sari’s end—passing over the shoulder—serving to cover the midriff and obscure the upper body’s contours. For men, a similar but shorter length of cloth, the dhoti, has served as a lower-body garment.{{harvnb|Tarlo|1996|pp=26–28}}{{multiple image| perrow = 1| total_width = 180| align = left| image_style = border:none;| image1 = Strolling Shoppers in Paltan Bazaar.jpg| caption1 = Women (from left to right) in churidars and kameez (with back to the camera), jeans and sweater, and pink shalwar kameez}}The use of stitched clothes became widespread after Muslim rule was established at first by the Delhi sultanate ({{Circa|1300 CE}}) and then continued by the Mughal Empire ({{Circa|1525 CE}}).{{citation |last=Alkazi |first=Roshen |editor=Rahman, Abdur |title=India’s Interaction with China, Central and West Asia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NZvpAAAAMAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-565789-0 |pages=464–484 |chapter=Evolution of Indian Costume as a result of the links between Central Asia and India in ancient and medieval times}} Among the garments introduced during this time and still commonly worn are: the shalwars and pyjamas, both styles of trousers, and the tunics kurta and kameez. In southern India, the traditional draped garments were to see much longer continuous use.Shalwars are atypically wide at the waist but narrow to a cuffed bottom. They are held up by a drawstring, which causes them to become pleated around the waist.{{citation|last1=Stevenson|first1=Angus|last2=Waite|first2=Maurice|title=Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Book & CD-ROM Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4XycAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1272|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=3 September 2019|isbn=978-0-19-960110-3|page=1272}} The pants can be wide and baggy, or they can be cut quite narrow, on the bias, in which case they are called churidars. When they are ordinarily wide at the waist and their bottoms are hemmed but not cuffed, they are called pyjamas. The kameez is a long shirt or tunic,{{citation|last1=Stevenson|first1=Angus|last2=Waite|first2=Maurice|title=Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Book & CD-ROM Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4XycAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA774|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-960110-3|page=774}} its side seams left open below the waist-line.{{citation|url=https://dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/platts_query.py?page=418|author=Platts, John T. (John Thompson)|title=A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English|location=London|page=418|publisher=W. H. Allen & Co.|year=1884|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224204345dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/platts_query.py?page=418|url-status=dead}} (online; updated February 2015) The kurta is traditionally collarless and made of cotton or silk; it is worn plain or with embroidered decoration, such as chikan; and typically falls to either just above or just below the wearer’s knees.{{citation|last=Shukla|first=Pravina|title=The Grace of Four Moons: Dress, Adornment, and the Art of the Body in Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MlObCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|year=2015|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-02121-2|page=71}}In the last 50 years, fashions have changed a great deal in India. Increasingly, in urban northern India, the sari is no longer the apparel of everyday wear, though they remain popular on formal occasions.{{citation|last=Dwyer|first=Rachel|author-link=Rachel Dwyer|title=Bollywood’s India: Hindi Cinema as a Guide to Contemporary India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DqwBBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA244|year=2014|publisher=Reaktion Books| isbn=978-1-78023-304-8|pages=244–245}} The traditional shalwar kameez is rarely worn by younger urban women, who favour churidars or jeans. In white-collar office settings, ubiquitous air conditioning allows men to wear sports jackets year-round. For weddings and formal occasions, men in the middle- and upper classes often wear bandgala, or short Nehru jackets, with pants, with the groom and his groomsmen sporting sherwanis and churidars. The dhoti, once the universal garment of Hindu males, the wearing of which in the homespun and handwoven khadi allowed Gandhi to bring Indian nationalism to the millions,{{citation|last=Dwyer|first=Rachel|author-link=Rachel Dwyer|editor=Stella Bruzzi, Pamela Church Gibson|title=Fashion Cultures: Theories, Explorations and Analysis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FYGMAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA178|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-29537-9|pages=178–189|chapter=Bombay Ishtyle}}is seldom seen in the cities.Cuisine
{{multiple image|perrow = 1/2|total_width = 180| align = right| image_style = border:none;| image2 = Odia Mutton Curry (Mansha Tarkari) Rotated.jpg| caption2 = Railway mutton curry from Odisha| image1 = South Indian Thali Cropped.jpg| caption1 = South Indian vegetarian thali, or platter}}The foundation of a typical Indian meal is a cereal cooked in a plain fashion and complemented with flavourful savoury dishes.{{citation|last=Davidson|first=Alan|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA409|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-967733-7|page=409}} The cooked cereal could be steamed rice; chapati, a thin unleavened bread made from wheat flour, or occasionally cornmeal, and griddle-cooked dry;{{citation|last=Davidson|first=Alan|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-967733-7|page=161|quote=Chapatis are made from finely milled whole-wheat flour, called chapati flour or atta, and water. The dough is rolled into thin rounds which vary in size from region to region and then cooked without fat or oil on a slightly curved griddle called a tava.}} the idli, a steamed breakfast cake, or dosa, a griddled pancake, both leavened and made from a batter of rice- and gram meal.{{citation|last1=Tamang|first1=J. P.|last2=Fleet|first2=G. H.|editor1-last=Satyanarayana|editor1-first=T.|editor2-last=Kunze|editor2-first=G.|chapter=Yeasts Diversity in Fermented Foods and Beverages|title=Yeast Biotechnology: Diversity and Applications|publisher=Springer|page=180|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLFmiervaqMC&pg=PA180|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4020-8292-4|quote=Idli is an acid-leavened and steamed cake made by bacterial fermentation of a thick batter made from coarsely ground rice and dehulled black gram. Idli cakes are soft, moist and spongy, have desirable sour flavour, and is eaten as breakfast in South India. Dosa batter is very similar to idli batter, except that both the rice and black gram are finely grounded. The batter is thinner than that of idli and is fried as a thin, crisp pancake and eaten directly in South India.}} The savoury dishes might include lentils, pulses and vegetables commonly spiced with ginger and garlic, but also with a combination of spices that may include coriander, cumin, turmeric, cinnamon, cardamon and others as informed by culinary conventions. They might also include poultry, fish, or meat dishes. In some instances, the ingredients might be mixed during the process of cooking.{{citation|last=Jhala|first=Angma Day|title=Royal Patronage, Power and Aesthetics in Princely India|publisher=Routledge|page=70|year=2015|isbn=978-1-317-31657-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WGpECgAAQBAJ&pg=PA70|quote=With the ascent of the Mughal Empire in sixteenth-century India, Turkic, Persian and Afghan traditions of dress, ‘architecture and cuisine’ were adopted by non-Muslim indigenous elites in South Asia. In this manner, Central Asian cooking merged with older traditions within the subcontinent, to create such signature dishes as biryani (a fusion of the Persian pilau and the spice-laden dishes of Hindustan), and the Kashmiri meat stew of Rogan Josh. It not only generated new dishes and entire cuisines, but also fostered novel modes of eating. Such newer trends included the consumption of Persian condiments, which relied heavily on almonds, pastries and quince jams, alongside Indian achars made from sweet limes, green vegetables and curds as side relishes during Mughlai meals.}}A platter, or thali, used for eating usually has a central place reserved for the cooked cereal, and peripheral ones for the flavourful accompaniments, which are often served in small bowls. The cereal and its accompaniments are eaten simultaneously rather than a piecemeal manner. This is accomplished by mixing—for example of rice and lentils—or folding, wrapping, scooping or dipping—such as chapati and cooked vegetables or lentils.File:Making Khameeri Roti in Tandoor in Turkman Gate Old Delhi.webm|thumb|left|180px|A tandoor chef in the Turkman Gate, Old Delhi, makes Khameeri roti (a Muslim-influenced style of leavened bread).{{citation|last=Panjabi|first=Camellia|title=The Great Curries of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TYCFJMLZ_-4C&pg=PA158|year=1995|publisher=isbn=978-0-684-80383-8|pages=158–|quote=The Muslim influenced breads of India are leavened, like naan, Khamiri roti, ...}}India has distinctive vegetarian cuisines, each a feature of the geographical and cultural histories of its adherents.{{citation|last=Davidson|first=Alan|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA410|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-967733-7|page=410}} The appearance of ahimsa, or the avoidance of violence toward all forms of life in many religious orders early in Indian history, especially Upanishadic Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, is thought to have contributed to the predominance of vegetarianism among a large segment of India’s Hindu population, especially in southern India, Gujarat, the Hindi-speaking belt of north-central India, as well as among Jains. Although meat is eaten widely in India, the proportional consumption of meat in the overall diet is low.{{citation|last1=Sahakian|first1=Marlyne|last2=Saloma|first2=Czarina|last3=Erkman|first3=Suren|title=Food Consumption in the City: Practices and patterns in urban Asia and the Pacific|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TBIxDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT50|year=2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-31050-1|page=50}} Unlike China, which has increased its per capita meat consumption substantially in its years of increased economic growth, in India the strong dietary traditions have contributed to dairy, rather than meat, becoming the preferred form of animal protein consumption.{{citation|author1=OECD|author2=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|title=OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2018–2027|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JuBiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|year=2018|publisher=OECD Publishing|isbn=978-92-64-06203-0|page=21}}The most significant import of cooking techniques into India during the last millennium occurred during the Mughal Empire. Dishes such as the pilaf,{{sfn|Roger|2000}} developed in the Abbasid caliphate,{{citation|last=Sengupta|first=Jayanta |editor=Freedman, Paul |editor2=Chaplin, Joyce E. |editor3=Albala, Ken |title=Food in Time and Place: The American Historical Association Companion to Food History|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SNQkDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA74|year=2014|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-27745-8|page=74|chapter=India}} and cooking techniques such as the marinating of meat in yogurt, spread into northern India from regions to its northwest.{{citation|last=Collingham|first=Elizabeth M.|title=Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pH88DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-532001-5|page=25}} To the simple yogurt marinade of Persia, onions, garlic, almonds, and spices began to be added in India. Rice was partially cooked and layered alternately with the sauteed meat, the pot sealed tightly, and slow cooked according to another Persian cooking technique, to produce what has today become the Indian biryani, a feature of festive dining in many parts of India.{{citation|last1=Nandy|first1=Ashis|author-link=Ashis Nandy|title=The Changing Popular Culture of Indian Food: Preliminary Notes|journal=South Asia Research|volume=24|issue=1|year=2004Sports and recreation
{{multiple image| perrow = 1| total_width = 220| image_style = border:none;| align = right| image1 = Filles jouant à la marelle, Jaura, Inde.jpgSee also
Notes
{{notelist|refs={{efn|name=remaining religions|Besides specific religions, the last two categories in the 2011 Census were “Other religions and persuasions” (0.65%) and “Religion not stated” (0.23%).}}|33em}}References
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External links
{{Sister project links|collapsible=collapsed|voy=India|India}}Government General information- India. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- {{Curlie|Regional/Asia/India}}
- {{GovPubs|India}}
- India from BBC News
- {{wikiatlas|India}}
- {{osmrelation-inline|304716}}
- Key Development Forecasts for India from International Futures
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