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Sovereignty
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{{Short description|Supreme authority within a territory}}{{other uses}}{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}File:Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|The frontispiece of Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan (1651), depicting the Sovereign as a massive body wielding a sword and crosier and composed of many individual people ]]{{Politics sidebar|expanded=Related topics}}Sovereignty can generally be defined as supreme authorityJOURNAL, Philpott, Daniel, 1995, Sovereignty: An Introduction and Brief History,www.jstor.org/stable/24357595, Journal of International Affairs, 48, 2, 353â368, 24357595, 0022-197X, subscription, BOOK, Sovereignty, A Dictionary of Law, Law, Jonathan, 21 June 2018, Oxford University Press, 978-0-19-880252-5, 20 May 2024,www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198802525.001.0001/acref-9780198802525-e-3701?rskey=1KDnJ5&result=7, sovereignty [...] Supreme authority in a state., BOOK
- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
, Bartelson
, Jens
, 9 May 2014
, Sovereignty as Symbolic Form
,books.google.com/books?id=ahKLAwAAQBAJ
, Critical Issues in Global Politics
, New York
, Routledge
, 16
, 9781317685838
, 20 May 2024
, Claims to supreme authority have long been encoded in Sovereignty as symbolic form.
, {{Additional citation needed|date=November 2023}} - it has to do with the exercise of power or with .{{oed | sovereignty}}Sovereignty entails hierarchy within a state, as well as external autonomy for states.BOOK, Spruyt, Hendrik,www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvzxx91t, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors: An Analysis of Systems Change, 1994, 176, Princeton University Press, 978-0-691-03356-3, 3â7, 10.2307/j.ctvzxx91t, j.ctvzxx91t, 221904936, In any state, sovereignty is assigned to the person, body or institution that has the ultimate authority over other people and to change existing laws.BOOK, Sovereignty, A Dictionary of Law, 21 June 2018, Oxford University Press, 978-0-19-880252-5, 20 May 2024,www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198802525.001.0001/acref-9780198802525-e-3701?rskey=1KDnJ5&result=7, In any state sovereignty is vested in the institution, person, or body having the ultimate authority to impose law on everyone else in the state and the power to alter any pre-existing law., In political theory, sovereignty is a substantive term designating supreme legitimate authority over some polity.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Encyclopædia Britannica, sovereignty (politics),www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/557065/sovereignty, 5 August 2010, , Jens
, 9 May 2014
, Sovereignty as Symbolic Form
,books.google.com/books?id=ahKLAwAAQBAJ
, Critical Issues in Global Politics
, New York
, Routledge
, 16
, 9781317685838
, 20 May 2024
, Claims to supreme authority have long been encoded in Sovereignty as symbolic form.
In international law, sovereignty is the exercise of power by a state. De jure sovereignty refers to the legal right to do so; de facto sovereignty refers to the factual ability to do so. This can become an issue of special concern upon the failure of the usual expectation that de jure and de facto sovereignty exist at the place and time of concern, and reside within the same organization.
Etymology
The term arises from the unattested Vulgar Latin *superanus (itself a derived form of Latin super â “over“) meaning “chief”, “ruler”.WEB,www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/sovereign, Collins’ Dictionary, “Sovereign”, Its spelling, which has varied since the word’s first appearance in English in the 14th century, was influenced by the English word “reign”.{{Dictionary.com|Sovereign}}OED, Sovereignty,Concepts
The concept of sovereignty has had multiple conflicting components, varying definitions, and diverse and inconsistent applications throughout history.BOOK, Krasner, Professor Stephen D.,books.google.com/books?id=ISqwQIBQff4C&pg=PA7, Problematic Sovereignty: Contested Rules and Political Possibilities, 2001, 9780231121798, 6â12, Columbia University Press, JOURNAL, Korff, Baron S. A., 1923, The Problem of Sovereignty,www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055400107555/type/journal_article, American Political Science Review, en, 17, 3, 404â414, 10.2307/1944043, 1944043, 147037039, 0003-0554, BOOK,repository.graduateinstitute.ch/record/14620?ln=en, Handbook of international relations, Sage, 2013, Biersteker, Thomas J., 245â272, State, sovereignty, and territory, The current notion of state sovereignty contains four aspects: territory, population, authority and recognition.BOOK, Biersteker, Thomas,books.google.com/books?id=qy97O2Eon0gC, State Sovereignty as Social Construct, Weber, Cynthia, Cambridge University Press, 1996, 9780521565998, According to Stephen D. Krasner, the term could also be understood in four different ways:- Domestic sovereignty â actual control over a state exercised by an authority organized within this state
- Interdependence sovereignty â actual control of movement across the state’s borders
- International legal sovereignty â formal recognition by other sovereign states
- Westphalian sovereignty â there is no other authority in the state aside from the domestic sovereign (such other authorities might be e.g. a political organization or any other external agent).
History
Classical
The Roman jurist Ulpian observed that:BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=Or46AAAAIAAJ&q=ulpian+sovereignty&pg=PA42, Sovereignty, 9780521339889, Hinsley, F. H., 20 November 1986, CUP Archive,- The people transferred all their imperium and power to the Emperor. Cum lege regia, quae de imperio eius lata est, populus ei et in eum omne suum imperium et potestatem conferat (Digest I.4.1)
- The laws do not bind the emperor. Princeps legibus solutus est (Digest I.3.31)
- A decision by the emperor has the force of law. Quod principi placuit legis habet vigorem. (Digest I.4.1)
Medieval
Ulpian’s statements were known in medieval Europe, but sovereignty was an important concept in medieval times. Medieval monarchs were not sovereign, at least not strongly so, because they were constrained by, and shared power with, their feudal aristocracy. Furthermore, both were strongly constrained by custom. Sovereignty existed during the Medieval period as the de jure rights of nobility and royalty.WEB,www.tititudorancea.com/z/sovereignty_07.htm, Sovereignty, www.tititudorancea.com, en, 26 November 2018,Reformation
Sovereignty reemerged as a concept in the late 16th century, a time when civil wars had created a craving for a stronger central authority when monarchs had begun to gather power onto their own hands at the expense of the nobility, and the modern nation state was emerging. Jean Bodin, partly in reaction to the chaos of the French wars of religion, presented theories of sovereignty calling for a strong central authority in the form of absolute monarchy. In his 1576 treatise Les Six Livres de la République (“Six Books of the Republic“) Bodin argued that it is inherent in the nature of the state that sovereignty must be:- Absolute: On this point, he said that the sovereign must be hedged in with obligations and conditions, must be able to legislate without his (or its) subjects’ consent, must not be bound by the laws of his predecessors, and could not, because it is illogical, be bound by his own laws.
- Perpetual: Not temporarily delegated as to a strong leader in an emergency or a state employee such as a magistrate. He held that sovereignty must be perpetual because anyone with the power to enforce a time limit on the governing power must be above the governing power, which would be impossible if the governing power is absolute.
Age of Enlightenment
During the Age of Enlightenment, the idea of sovereignty gained both legal and moral force as the main Western description of the meaning and power of a State. In particular, the “Social contract” as a mechanism for establishing sovereignty was suggested and, by 1800, widely accepted, especially in the new United States and France, though also in Great Britain to a lesser extent.Thomas Hobbes, in Leviathan (1651) put forward a conception of sovereignty similar to Bodin’s, which had just achieved legal status in the “Peace of Westphalia”, but for different reasons. He created the first modern version of the social contract (or contractarian) theory, arguing that to overcome the “nasty, brutish and short” quality of life without the cooperation of other human beings, people must join in a “commonwealth” and submit to a “Soveraigne{{sic}} Power” that can compel them to act in the common good. This expediency argument attracted many of the early proponents of sovereignty. Hobbes strengthened the definition of sovereignty beyond either Westphalian or Bodin’s, by saying that it must be:{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}}WEB, Philpott, Daniel, Fall 2020, Sovereignty,plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/sovereignty/, 2023-08-16, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,- Absolute: because conditions could only be imposed on a sovereign if there were some outside arbitrator to determine when he had violated them, in which case the sovereign would not be the final authority.
- Indivisible: The sovereign is the only final authority in his territory; he does not share final authority with any other entity. Hobbes held this to be true because otherwise there would be no way of resolving a disagreement between the multiple authorities.
Post World War II world order
Today, no state is sovereign in the sense they were prior to the Second World War.{{sfn|Grimm|2015|p=57}} Transnational governance agreements and institutions, the globalized economy,BOOK, Ozcelik, Burcu, Xidias, Jason, An Analysis of Seyla Benhabib’s The Rights of Others: Aliens, Residents and Citizens, 2017, Routledge- Taylor & Francis Group, 9781912284870, London, e-book, 11,21, and pooled sovereignty unions such as the European union have eroded the sovereignty of traditional states. The centuries long movement which developed a global system of sovereign states came to an end when the excesses of World War II made it clear to nations that some curtailment of the rights of sovereign states was necessary if future cruelties and injustices were to be prevented.{{sfn|Philpott|2016}}{{sfn|Kallis|2018|p=6}} In the years immediately prior to the war, National Socialist theorist Carl Schmitt argued that sovereignty had supremacy over constitutional and international constraints arguing that states as sovereigns couldn’t be judged and punished.BOOK, Minakov, Mikhail, Sovereignty as a Contested Concept: The Cases of Trumpism and Putinism, Inventing Majorities: Ideological Creativity in Post-Soviet Societies, 9783838216416, 2022, ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart, 286, After the Holocaust, the vast majority of states rejected the prior Westphalian permissiveness towards such supremacist power based sovereignty formulations and signed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. It was the first step towards circumscription of the powers of sovereign nations, soon followed by the Genocide Convention which legally required nations to punish genocide. Based on these and similar human rights agreements, beginning in 1990 there was a practical expression of this circumscription when the Westphalian principle of non-intervention was no longer observed for cases where the United Nations or another international organization endorsed a political or military action. Previously, actions in Yugoslavia, Bosnia, Kosovo, Somalia, Rwanda, Haiti, Cambodia or Liberia would have been regarded as illegitimate interference in internal affairs. In 2005, the revision of the concept of sovereignty was made explicit with the Responsibility to Protect agreement endorsed by all member states of the United Nations. If a state fails this responsibility either by perpetrating massive injustice or being incapable of protecting its citizens, then outsiders may assume that responsibility despite prior norms forbidding such interference in a nation’s sovereignty.{{sfn|Grimm|2015|pp=50-56}}European integration is the second form of post-world war change in the norms of sovereignty, representing a significant shift since member nations are no longer absolutely sovereign. Some theorists, such as Jacques Maritain and Bertrand de Jouvenel have attacked the legitimacy of the earlier concepts of sovereignty, with Maritain advocating that the concept be discarded entirely since it:{{sfn|Philpott|2016}}- stands in the way of international law and a world state,
- internally results in centralism, not pluralism
- obstructs the democratic notion of accountability
Definition and types
Absoluteness
An important factor of sovereignty is its degree of absoluteness.JOURNAL, Núñez, Jorge Emilio, 2014, About the Absolute State Sovereignty, International Journal for Law, 27, 4, 645â664, 10.1007/s11196-013-9333-x, 150817547, JOURNAL, Núñez, Jorge Emilio, 2015, of Absolute State Sovereignty: The Middle Ages, International Journal for the Law, 28, 2, 235â250, 10.1007/s11196-014-9379-4, 153788601, A sovereign power has absolute sovereignty when it is not restricted by a constitution, by the laws of its predecessors, or by custom, and no areas of law or policy are reserved as being outside its control. International law; policies and actions of neighboring states; cooperation and respect of the populace; means of enforcement; and resources to enact policy are factors that might limit sovereignty. For example, parents are not guaranteed the right to decide some matters in the upbringing of their children independent of societal regulation, and municipalities do not have unlimited jurisdiction in local matters, thus neither parents nor municipalities have absolute sovereignty. Theorists have diverged over the desirability of increased absoluteness.Exclusivity
A key element of sovereignty in a legalistic sense is that of exclusivity of jurisdiction also described as the ultimate arbiter in all disputes on the territory. Specifically, the degree to which decisions made by a sovereign entity might be contradicted by another authority. Along these lines, the German sociologist Max Weber proposed that sovereignty is a community’s monopoly on the legitimate use of force; and thus any group claiming the right to violence must either be brought under the yoke of the sovereign, proven illegitimate or otherwise contested and defeated for sovereignty to be genuine.Newton, Kenneth. Foundations of comparative politics: democracies of the modern world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. The monopoly on violence opposes the universal application of the non-aggression principle and the ‘just cause’ in just war theory and is therefore only understood to hold with respect to natural persons, and not with respect to other states. A similar concept as the monopoly on violence can be found in social class in relation to the ancien regime and feudalism. International law, competing branches of government, and authorities reserved for subordinate entities (such as federated states or republics) represent legal infringements on exclusivity. Social institutions such as religious bodies, corporations, and competing political parties might represent de facto infringements on exclusivity.De jure and de facto“>De jure and de facto
De jure, or legal, sovereignty concerns the expressed and institutionally recognised right to exercise control over a territory. De facto sovereignty means sovereignty exists in practice, irrespective of anything legally accepted as such, usually in writing. Cooperation and respect of the populace; control of resources in, or moved into, an area; means of enforcement and security; and ability to carry out various functions of state all represent measures of de facto sovereignty. When control is practiced predominantly by the military or police force it is considered coercive sovereignty.Sovereignty and independence
{{more citations needed section|date=July 2015}}State sovereignty is sometimes viewed synonymously with independence, however, sovereignty can be transferred as a legal right whereas independence cannot. A state can achieve de facto independence long after acquiring sovereignty, such as in the case of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. Additionally, independence can also be suspended when an entire region becomes subject to an occupation. For example, when Iraq was overrun by foreign forces in the Iraq War of 2003, Iraq had not been annexed by any country, so sovereignty over it had not been claimed by any foreign state (despite the facts on the ground). Alternatively, independence can be lost completely when sovereignty itself becomes the subject of dispute. The pre-World War II administrations of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia maintained an exile existence (and considerable international recognition) whilst their territories were annexed by the Soviet Union and governed locally by their pro-Soviet functionaries. When in 1991 Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia re-enacted independence, it was done so on the basis of continuity directly from the pre-Soviet republics.BOOK, Talmon, Stefan, Recognition of Governments in International Law,books.google.com/books?id=scc8EboiJX8C&pg=PA50, Oxford Monographs in International Law Series, 1998, Oxford University Press, 9780198265733, 50, BOOK, Mälksoo, Lauri, Illegal Annexation and State Continuity: The Case of the Incorporation of the Baltic States by the USSR, 2003, M. Nijhoff Publishers, 978-9041121776, 193,books.google.com/books?id=p5w6AQAAIAAJ, Another complicated sovereignty scenario can arise when regime itself is the subject of dispute. In the case of Poland, the People’s Republic of Poland which governed Poland from 1945 to 1989 is now seen to have been an illegal entity by the modern Polish administration. The post-1989 Polish state claims direct continuity from the Second Polish Republic which ended in 1939. For other reasons, however, Poland maintains its communist-era outline as opposed to its pre-World War II shape which included areas now in Belarus, Czech Republic, Lithuania, Slovakia and Ukraine but did not include some of its western regions that were then in Germany.Additionally sovereignty can be achieved without independence, such as how the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic made the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic a sovereign entity within but not independent from the USSR.At the opposite end of the scale, there is no dispute regarding the self-governance of certain self-proclaimed states such as the Republic of Kosovo or Somaliland (see List of states with limited recognition, but most of them are puppet states) since their governments neither answer to a bigger state nor is their governance subjected to supervision. The sovereignty (i.e. legal right to govern) however, is disputed in both cases as the first entity is claimed by Serbia and the second by Somalia.Internal
{{further|Free state (polity)}}Internal sovereignty is the relationship between sovereign power and the political community. A central concern is legitimacy: by what right does a government exercise authority? Claims of legitimacy might refer to the divine right of kings, or to a social contract (i.e. popular sovereignty).{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}} Max Weber offered a first categorization of political authority and legitimacy with the categories of traditional, charismatic and legal-rational.With Sovereignty meaning holding supreme, independent authority over a region or state, Internal Sovereignty refers to the internal affairs of the state and the location of supreme power within it.WEB, Heywood, Andrew, Political Theory,www.scribd.com/doc/51146058/41/Internal-sovereignty#page=108, pg. 92, Palgrave Macmillan, 25 June 2011, dead,www.scribd.com/doc/51146058/41/Internal-sovereignty#page=108," title="web.archive.org/web/20111224011743www.scribd.com/doc/51146058/41/Internal-sovereignty#page=108,">web.archive.org/web/20111224011743www.scribd.com/doc/51146058/41/Internal-sovereignty#page=108, 24 December 2011, A state that has internal sovereignty is one with a government that has been elected by the people and has the popular legitimacy. Internal sovereignty examines the internal affairs of a state and how it operates. It is important to have strong internal sovereignty to keeping order and peace. When you have weak internal sovereignty, organisations such as rebel groups will undermine the authority and disrupt the peace. The presence of a strong authority allows you to keep the agreement and enforce sanctions for the violation of laws. The ability for leadership to prevent these violations is a key variable in determining internal sovereignty.WEB, Wolford, Rider, Scott, Toby, War, Peace, and Internal Sovereignty,spot.colorado.edu/~wolfordm/implementation2.pdf, pg.1, 19 June 2011, {{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} The lack of internal sovereignty can cause war in one of two ways: first, undermining the value of agreement by allowing costly violations; and second, requiring such large subsidies for implementation that they render war cheaper than peace.WEB, Wolford, Rider, Scott, Toby, War, Peace, and Internal Sovereignty,spot.colorado.edu/~wolfordm/implementation2.pdf, pg.3, 19 June 2011, {{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Leadership needs to be able to promise members, especially those like armies, police forces, or paramilitaries will abide by agreements. The presence of strong internal sovereignty allows a state to deter opposition groups in exchange for bargaining. While the operations and affairs within a state are relative to the level of sovereignty within that state, there is still an argument over who should hold the authority in a sovereign state.This argument between who should hold the authority within a sovereign state is called the traditional doctrine of public sovereignty. This discussion is between an internal sovereign or an authority of public sovereignty. An internal sovereign is a political body that possesses ultimate, final and independent authority; one whose decisions are binding upon all citizens, groups and institutions in society. Early thinkers believed sovereignty should be vested in the hands of a single person, a monarch. They believed the overriding merit of vesting sovereignty in a single individual was that sovereignty would therefore be indivisible; it would be expressed in a single voice that could claim final authority. An example of an internal sovereign is Louis XIV of France during the seventeenth century; Louis XIV claimed that he was the state. Jean-Jacques Rousseau rejected monarchical rule in favor of the other type of authority within a sovereign state, public sovereignty. Public Sovereignty is the belief that ultimate authority is vested in the people themselves, expressed in the idea of the general will. This means that the power is elected and supported by its members, the authority has a central goal of the good of the people in mind. The idea of public sovereignty has often been the basis for modern democratic theory.WEB, Heywood, Andrew, Political Theory,www.scribd.com/doc/51146058/41/Internal-sovereignty#page=108, pg. 93, Palgrave Macmillan, 21 June 2011, dead,www.scribd.com/doc/51146058/41/Internal-sovereignty#page=108," title="web.archive.org/web/20111224011743www.scribd.com/doc/51146058/41/Internal-sovereignty#page=108,">web.archive.org/web/20111224011743www.scribd.com/doc/51146058/41/Internal-sovereignty#page=108, 24 December 2011,Modern internal sovereignty
{{further|Tribal sovereignty}}Within the modern governmental system, internal sovereignty is usually found in states that have public sovereignty and is rarely found within a state controlled by an internal sovereign. A form of government that is a little different from both is the UK parliament system. John Austin argued that sovereignty in the UK was vested neither in the Crown nor in the people but in the “Queen-in-Parliament”. This is the origin of the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty and is usually seen as the fundamental principle of the British constitution. With these principles of parliamentary sovereignty, majority control can gain access to unlimited constitutional authority, creating what has been called “elective dictatorship” or “modern autocracy”. Public sovereignty in modern governments is a lot more common with examples like the US, Canada, Australia and India where the government is divided into different levels.WEB, Heywood, Andrew, Political Theory, pgs. 94â95, Palgrave Macmillan,www.scribd.com/doc/51146058/42/External-sovereignty,www.scribd.com/doc/51146058/42/External-sovereignty," title="web.archive.org/web/20120120191845www.scribd.com/doc/51146058/42/External-sovereignty,">web.archive.org/web/20120120191845www.scribd.com/doc/51146058/42/External-sovereignty, January 20, 2012,External
{{See also|Sovereign state#Recognition}}External sovereignty concerns the relationship between sovereign power and other states. For example, the United Kingdom uses the following criterion when deciding under what conditions other states recognise a political entity as having sovereignty over some territory;External sovereignty is connected with questions of international law â such as when, if ever, is intervention by one country into another’s territory permissible?Following the Thirty Years’ War, a European religious conflict that embroiled much of the continent, the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 established the notion of territorial sovereignty as a norm of noninterference in the affairs of other states, so-called Westphalian sovereignty, even though the treaty itself reaffirmed the multiple levels of the sovereignty of the Holy Roman Empire. This resulted as a natural extension of the older principle of cuius regio, eius religio (Whose realm, his religion), leaving the Roman Catholic Church with little ability to interfere with the internal affairs of many European states. It is a myth, however, that the Treaties of Westphalia created a new European order of equal sovereign states.Andreas Osiander, “Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Westphalian Myth”, International Organization Vol. 55 No. 2 (Spring 2001), pp. 251â287.BOOK, Burbank, Jane,books.google.com/books?id=y7B9euuLEkUC, Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference, Cooper, Frederick, 2010, Princeton University Press, 978-0-691-12708-8, 182, 219, en, In international law, sovereignty means that a government possesses full control over affairs within a territorial or geographical area or limit. Determining whether a specific entity is sovereign is not an exact science, but often a matter of diplomatic dispute. There is usually an expectation that both de jure and de facto sovereignty rest in the same organisation at the place and time of concern. Foreign governments use varied criteria and political considerations when deciding whether or not to recognise the sovereignty of a state over a territory.{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}} Membership in the United Nations requires that “[t]he admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be affected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council.“WEB, UN Chart, Article 2,www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter2.shtml, 4 October 2011, dead,web.archive.org/web/20131208031716/https://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter2.shtml, 8 December 2013, Sovereignty may be recognized even when the sovereign body possesses no territory or its territory is under partial or total occupation by another power. The Holy See was in this position between the annexation in 1870 of the Papal States by Italy and the signing of the Lateran Treaties in 1929, a 59-year period during which it was recognised as sovereign by many (mostly Roman Catholic) states despite possessing no territory â a situation resolved when the Lateran Treaties granted the Holy See sovereignty over the Vatican City. Another case, sui generis is the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, the third sovereign entity inside Italian territory (after San Marino and the Vatican City State) and the second inside the Italian capital (since in 1869 the Palazzo di Malta and the Villa Malta receive extraterritorial rights, in this way becoming the only “sovereign” territorial possessions of the modern Order), which is the last existing heir to one of several once militarily significant, crusader states of sovereign military orders. In 1607 its Grand masters were also made Reichsfürst (princes of the Holy Roman Empire) by the Holy Roman Emperor, granting them seats in the Reichstag, at the time the closest permanent equivalent to an UN-type general assembly; confirmed 1620. These sovereign rights were never deposed, only the territories were lost. Over 100 modern states maintain full diplomatic relations with the order,WEB,www.orderofmalta.int/diplomatic-relations/862/sovereign-order-of-malta-bilateral-relations/?lang=en,www.orderofmalta.int/diplomatic-relations/862/sovereign-order-of-malta-bilateral-relations/?lang=en," title="web.archive.org/web/20151203180316www.orderofmalta.int/diplomatic-relations/862/sovereign-order-of-malta-bilateral-relations/?lang=en,">web.archive.org/web/20151203180316www.orderofmalta.int/diplomatic-relations/862/sovereign-order-of-malta-bilateral-relations/?lang=en, dead, Bilateral diplomatic relations of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, 3 December 2015, and the UN awarded it observer status.{{UN document |docid=A-RES-48-265 |type=Resolution |body=General Assembly |session=48 |resolution_number=265 |access-date=10 September 2007|title=Observer status for the Sovereign Military Order of Malta in the General Assembly}}The governments-in-exile of many European states (for instance, Norway, Netherlands or Czechoslovakia) during the Second World War were regarded as sovereign despite their territories being under foreign occupation; their governance resumed as soon as the occupation had ended. The government of Kuwait was in a similar situation vis-à -vis the Iraqi occupation of its country during 1990â1991.BOOK, Nolan, Cathal J., The Greenwood Encyclopedia of International Relations,books.google.com/books?id=FMJ8KP8i3v0C&pg=PA1559, 4, 2002, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1559, 9780313323836, The government of Republic of China was recognized as sovereign over China from 1911 to 1971 despite that its mainland China territory became occupied by Communist Chinese forces since 1949. In 1971 it lost UN recognition to Chinese Communist-led People’s Republic of China and its sovereign and political status as a state became disputed; therefore, it lost its ability to use “China” as its name and therefore became commonly known as Taiwan.The International Committee of the Red Cross is commonly mistaken to be sovereign. It has been granted various degrees of special privileges and legal immunities in many countries, including Belgium, France, Switzerland,By formal agreement between the Swiss government and the ICRC, Switzerland grants full sanctity of all ICRC property in Switzerland including its headquarters and archive, grants members and staff legal immunity, exempts the ICRC from all taxes and fees, guarantees the protected and duty-free transfer of goods, services, and money, provides the ICRC with secure communication privileges at the same level as foreign embassies, and simplifies Committee travel in and out of Switzerland.On the other hand Switzerland does not recognize ICRC issued passports {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510112534www.udiregelverk.no/~/media/Images/Rettskilder/Visa%20Code/Visa%20Code%20vedlegg%2010%20a.ashx|date=10 May 2011}}. Australia, Russia, South Korea, South Africa and the US, and soon in Ireland. The Committee is a private organisation governed by Swiss law.WEB,www.icrc.org/eng/who-we-are/overview-who-we-are.htm, About the International Committee of the Red Cross, 29 October 2010,Shared and pooled
Just as the office of head of state can be vested jointly in several persons within a state, the sovereign jurisdiction over a single political territory can be shared jointly by two or more consenting powers, notably in the form of a condominium.Joel H. Samuels, Condominium Arrangements in International Practice: Reviving an Abandoned Concept of Boundary Dispute Resolution, 29 Mich. J. Int’l L. 727 (2008).Available at:repository.law.umich.edu/mjil/vol29/iss4/3 Likewise the member states of international organizations may voluntarily bind themselves by treaty to a supranational organization, such as a continental union. In the case of the European Union member-states, this is called “pooled sovereignty”.JOURNAL, The European Union: Pooled Sovereignty, Divided Accountability, 10.1111/1467-9248.00096, 45, 3, Political Studies, 559â578, John, Peterson, 1997, 144362061, BOOK, McNaughton, Neil, Understanding British and European political issues : a guide for A2 politics studies, 2003, Manchester University Press, 978-0719062452, 207,books.google.com/books?id=tMrD6RRoZkQC&pg=RA1-PT152, Another example of shared and pooled sovereignty is the Acts of Union 1707 which created the unitary state now known as the United Kingdom.BOOK, Mannin, Michael L., British government and politics balancing Europeanization and independence, 2010, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 9780742567771, 134,books.google.com/books?id=ucS-AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA134, BOOK, Rawlings, Richard, Leyland, Peter, Young, Alison L, Sovereignty and the law : domestic, European, and international perspectives, 2013, Oxford University Press, 978-0199684069, 28,books.google.com/books?id=dyUiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA28, BOOK, Jesse, Neal G., Williams, Kristen P., Identity and institutions: conflict reduction in divided societies, 2005, State Univ. of New York Press, 978-0791464519, 120,archive.org/details/identityinstitut0000jess, registration, It was a full economic union, meaning the Scottish and English systems of currency, taxation and laws regulating trade were aligned.R. Mitchison, A History of Scotland (London: Routledge, 3rd edn., 2002), {{ISBN|0415278805}}, p. 314. Nonetheless, Scotland and England never fully surrendered or pooled all of their governance sovereignty; they retained many of their previous national institutional features and characteristics, particularly relating to their legal, religious and educational systems.BOOK, McCann, Philip, The UK RegionalâNational Economic Problem: Geography, globalisation and governance, 2016, Routledge, 9781317237174, 372,books.google.com/books?id=uAi4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT372, In 2012, the Scottish Government, created in 1998 through devolution in the United Kingdom, negotiated terms with the Government of the United Kingdom for the 2014 Scottish independence referendum which resulted in the people of Scotland deciding to continue the pooling of its sovereignty with the rest of the United Kingdom.Nation-states
A community of people who claim the right of self-determination based on a common ethnicity, history and culture might seek to establish sovereignty over a region, thus creating a nation-state. Such nations are sometimes recognised as autonomous areas rather than as fully sovereign, independent states.Federations
In a federal system of government, sovereignty also refers to powers which a constituent state or republic possesses independently of the national government. In a confederation, constituent entities retain the right to withdraw from the national body and the union is often more temporary than a federation.WEB, Confederation,www.britannica.com/topic/confederation-politics, 17 June 2020, Encyclopædia Britannica, Different interpretations of state sovereignty in the United States of America, as it related to the expansion of slavery and fugitive slave laws, led to the outbreak of the American Civil War. Depending on the particular issue, sometimes both northern and southern states justified their political positions by appealing to state sovereignty. Fearing that slavery would be threatened by results of the 1860 presidential election, eleven slave states declared their independence from the federal Union and formed a new confederation.McPherson, James, Battle Cry of Freedom, (1988) pp. 40, 195, 214, 241 The United States government rejected the secessions as rebellion, declaring that secession from the Union by an individual state was unconstitutional, as the states were part of an indissoluble federation in perpetual union.WEB, Lincoln on Secession,www.nps.gov/liho/learn/historyculture/secessiontableofcontents.htm, National Park Service, 31 October 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200916204338/https://www.nps.gov/liho/learn/historyculture/secessiontableofcontents.htm, 16 September 2020, en, 10 April 2015, The secessionists claimed that according to the Constitution every state had the right to leave the Union. Lincoln claimed that they did not have that right., live,Sovereignty versus military occupation
In situations related to war, or which have arisen as the result of war, most modern scholars still commonly fail to distinguish between holding sovereignty and exercising military occupation.In regard to military occupation, international law prescribes the limits of the occupant’s power. Occupation does not displace the sovereignty of the occupied state, though for the time being the occupant may exercise supreme governing authority. Nor does occupation effect any annexation or incorporation of the occupied territory into the territory or political structure of the occupant, and the occupant’s constitution and laws do not extend of their own force to the occupied territory.{{Citation|url=http://www.uniset.ca/other/cs4/86FRD227.html|title=U.S. v. Tiede|author=United States Court of Berlin|date=14 March 1979|publisher=United Settlement (Canada).|access-date=26 October 2021}}To a large extent, the original academic foundation for the concept of “military occupation” arose from On the Law of War and Peace (1625) by Hugo Grotius and The Law of Nations (1758) by Emmerich de Vattel. Binding international rules regarding the conduct of military occupation were more carefully codified in the 1907 Hague Convention (and accompanying Hague Regulations).In 1946, the Nuremberg International Military Tribunal stated with regard to the Hague Convention on Land Warfare of 1907: “The rules of land warfare expressed in the Convention undoubtedly represented an advance over existing International Law at the time of their adoption ... but by 1939 these rules ... were recognized by all civilized nations and were regarded as being declaratory of the laws and customs of war.”Acquisition
A number of modes for acquisition of sovereignty are presently or have historically been recognized in international law as lawful methods by which a state may acquire sovereignty over external territory. The classification of these modes originally derived from Roman property law and from the 15th and 16th century with the development of international law. The modes are:BOOK, Malanczuk, Peter, Akehurst’s Modern Introduction to International Law,archive.org/details/akehurstsmoderni0000mala, registration, International politics/Public international law, Routledge, 9780415111201, 147â152, 1997,- Cession is the transfer of territory from one state to another usually by means of treaty;
- Occupation is the acquisition of territory that belongs to no state (or terra nullius);
- Prescription is the effective control of territory of another acquiescing state;
- Operations of nature is the acquisition of territory through natural processes like river accretion or volcanism;
- Creation is the process by which new land is (re)claimed from the sea such as in the Netherlands.
- Adjudication and
- Conquest
Justifications
There exist vastly differing views on the moral basis of sovereignty. A fundamental polarity is between theories which assert that sovereignty is vested directly in the sovereigns by divine or natural right, and theories which assert it originates from the people. In the latter case there is a further division into those which assert that the people effectively transfer their sovereignty to the sovereign (Hobbes), and those which assert that the people retain their sovereignty (Rousseau).Tuck, Richard (2016). The Sleeping Sovereign: The Invention of Modern Democracy. Cambridge University Press. p. 100. {{ISBN|9781316425503}}During the brief period of absolute monarchies in Europe, the divine right of kings was an important competing justification for the exercise of sovereignty. The Mandate of Heaven had similar implications in China for the justification of the Emperor’s rule, though it was largely replaced with discussions of Western-style sovereignty by the late 19th century.Mitchell, Ryan MartÃnez (2022). Recentering the World: China and the Transformation of International Law. Cambridge University Press. pp. 32, 52, 63. {{ISBN|9781108690157}}A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, retain sovereignty over the government and where offices of state are not granted through heritage.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Republic, Encyclopædia Britannica, Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws (1748), Bk. II, ch. 1. A common modern definition of a republic is a government having a head of state who is not a monarch.JOURNAL, republic, WordNet 3.0, 20 March 2009,dictionary.reference.com/browse/republic, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Republic, Merriam-Webster,www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/republic, 14 August 2010, Democracy is based on the concept of popular sovereignty. In a direct democracy the public plays an active role in shaping and deciding policy. Representative democracy permits a transfer of the exercise of sovereignty from the people to a legislative body or an executive (or to some combination of the legislature, executive and Judiciary). Many representative democracies provide limited direct democracy through referendum, initiative, and recall.Parliamentary sovereignty refers to a representative democracy where the parliament is ultimately sovereign, rather than the executive power or the judiciary.Views
- Classical liberals such as John Stuart Mill consider every individual as sovereign.
- Realists view sovereignty as being untouchable and as guaranteed to legitimate nation-states.{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}}
- Rationalists see sovereignty similarly to realists. However, rationalism states that the sovereignty of a nation-state may be violated in extreme circumstances, such as human rights abuses.{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}}
- Internationalists believe that sovereignty is outdated and an unnecessary obstacle to achieving peace, in line with their belief in a global community. In the light of the abuse of power by sovereign states such as Hitler’s Germany or Stalin’s Soviet Union, they argue that human beings are not necessarily protected by the state whose citizens they are and that the respect for state sovereignty on which the UN Charter is founded is an obstacle to humanitarian intervention.Beatrice Heuser: “Sovereignty, self-determination and security: new world orders in the 20th century”, in Sohail Hashmi (ed.): State Sovereignty: Change and Persistence in International Relations (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press, 1997).
- Anarchists and some libertarians deny the sovereignty of states and governments. Anarchists often argue for a specific individual kind of sovereignty, such as the Anarch as a sovereign individual. Salvador DalÃ, for instance, talked of “anarcho-monarchist” (as usual for him, tongue in cheek); Antonin Artaud of Heliogabalus: Or, The Crowned Anarchist; Max Stirner of The Ego and Its Own; Georges Bataille and Jacques Derrida talked of a kind of “antisovereignty”. Therefore, anarchists join a classical conception of the individual as sovereign of himself, which forms the basis of political consciousness. The unified consciousness is sovereignty over one’s own body, as Nietzsche demonstrated (see also Pierre Klossowski’s book on Nietzsche and the Vicious Circle). See also sovereignty of the individual and self-ownership.
- Imperialists hold a view of sovereignty where power rightfully exists with those states that hold the greatest ability to impose the will of said state, by force or threat of force, over the populace of other states with weaker military or political will. They effectively deny the sovereignty of the individual in deference to either the good of the whole or to divine right.{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}}
See also
- Air sovereignty
- Autonomous area
- Basileus
- Islamic concept of sovereignty
- Mandate of Heaven
- National sovereignty
- Plenary authority
- Self-ownership
- Self-sovereign identity
- Sovereignty of the individual
- Souverainism
- Suzerainty
References
{{Catholic Encyclopedia|wstitle=Plenary Council}}
{{Reflist}}Further reading
- BOOK, Benton, Lauren, A Search for Sovereignty: Law and Geography in European Empires, 1400â1900, Cambridge University Press, 2010, 978-0-521-88105-0,books.google.com/books?id=6BNZPgAACAAJ,
- BOOK, Grimm, Dieter, Sovereignty: The Origin and Future of a Political and Legal Concept, Howard, Dick, 9780231539302, 2015, Columbia University Press, e-book, Columbia Studies in Political Thought / Political History, Cooper, Belinda,
- Paris, R. (2020). “ International Organization
- ENCYCLOPEDIA, Philpott, Dan, Sovereignty, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,plato.stanford.edu/entries/sovereignty/, Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2016,
- BOOK, Prokhovnik, Raia, Raia Prokhovnik, Sovereignties: contemporary theory and practice, Palgrave Macmillan, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire New York, N.Y, 2007, 9781403913234,
- BOOK, Prokhovnik, Raia, Raia Prokhovnik, Sovereignty: history and theory, Imprint Academic, Exeter, UK Charlottesville, VA, 2008, 9781845401412,
- BOOK, Thomson, Janice E., Mercenaries, pirates, and sovereigns: state-building and extraterritorial violence in early modern Europe, Princeton University Press, 1996, 978-0-691-02571-1,books.google.com/books?id=EvylnkgJ9ycC,
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