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Mughal Empire
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{{Short description|1526–1857 empire in South Asia}}{{distinguish|text=the Mongol Empire or Moghulistan}}{{redirect|Mughals|the ethnic groups|Mughal people|the imperial family|Mughal dynasty}}{{pp-semi-indef}}{{Use Indian English|date=July 2016}}{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
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| conventional_long_name | Mughal Empire| common_name = Mughal Empire| native_name = | image_flag =
| Monarchy, Centralized government>centralized autocracy{{sfn | Argyriades | p=129}}{{Unreliable source?|date=April 2024}} (1526–1719) | Durbar (court)>Durbar / darbÄr{{harvtxt | 2022 |p=75}}| life_span = 1526–1857| year_start = 1526| year_end = 1857| event_start = First Battle of Panipat| date_start = 21 April | Siege of Delhi>Siege of Delhi(1857)| date_end = 21 September| event_post = Mughal Emperor exiled to Burma| date_post = 1858 | Sur Empire>Mughal Interregnum| date_event1 = 17 May 1540–22 June 1555| event2 = Second Battle of Panipat| date_event2 = 5 November 1556| event3 = Mughal–Afghan Wars| date_event3 = 1526–1752| event4 = Mughal–Maratha Wars| date_event4 = 1680–1707| event6 = Nader Shah's invasion of India| date_event6 = 10 May 1738–1740| p1 = Delhi Sultanate| p2 = Sur Empire| s1 = Maratha Empire| s2 = Company rule in India| s3 = British Raj | * India
| 1700}} under Aurangzeb| image_map_alt = Mughal| coa_size = 85px |
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| Rupee, History of the taka>Taka, Dam (Indian coin) | {{rp>73–74}}| leader1 = Babur| leader2 = Bahadur Shah II| year_leader1 = 1526–1530 (first)| year_leader2 = 1837–1857 (last) | Mughal emperors>Emperor{{efn | Morier | p=601}}}} | List of Mughal grand viziers>Grand Vizier| year_deputy1 = 1526–1540 (first)| deputy1 = Mir Khalifa| year_deputy2 = 1775–1797 (last)| deputy2 = Asaf-ud-Daula| title_representative = Vakil-i-Mutlaq| representative1 = Mir Khalifa| year_representative1 = 1526–1540 (first)| representative2 = Daulat Rao Sindhia| year_representative2 = 1795–1818 (last) | LAST2=ADAMS | LAST3=HALL | YEAR=2006 | JOURNAL=JOURNAL OF WORLD-SYSTEMS RESEARCH | ISSUE=2 | DOI=10.5195/JWSR.2006.369 | DOI-ACCESS=FREE, REIN TAAGEPERA >AUTHOR-LINK=REIN TAAGEPERA | TITLE=EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION PATTERNS OF LARGE POLITIES: CONTEXT FOR RUSSIA | JOURNAL=INTERNATIONAL STUDIES QUARTERLY | ISSUE=3 | DOI=10.1111/0020-8833.00053 | ACCESS-DATE=6 JULY 2019 | ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20181119114740/HTTPS://ESCHOLARSHIP.ORG/UC/ITEM/3CN68807, live, | stat_area1 = 4000000| stat_year2 = 1595 | TITLE=A POPULATION HISTORY OF INDIA: FROM THE FIRST MODERN PEOPLE TO THE PRESENT DAY | PUBLISHER=OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS | ISBN=978-0-19-256430-6, We have seen that there is considerable uncertainty about the size of India's population c.1595. Serious assessments vary from 116 to 145 million (with an average of 125 million). However, the true figure could even be outside of this range. Accordingly, while it seems likely that the population grew over the seventeenth century, it is unlikely that we will ever have a good idea of its size in 1707., | stat_year3 = 1700| stat_pop3 = 158,000,000| image_coat = | alt_coat = }}The Mughal Empire was an early modern Indo-Muslim empire in South Asia.{{Citation |last=Richards |first=John F. |title=The Mughal Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA2 |page=2 |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |access-date=9 August 2017 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922031915weblink |url-status=live }} Quote: "Although the first two Timurid emperors and many of their noblemen were recent migrants to the subcontinent, the dynasty and the empire itself became indisputably Indian. The interests and futures of all concerned were in India, not in ancestral homelands in the Middle East or Central Asia. Furthermore, the Mughal Empire emerged from the Indian historical experience. It was the end product of a millennium of Muslim conquest, colonization, and state-building in the Indian subcontinent." At its peak, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus River Basin in the west, northern Afghanistan in the northwest, and Kashmir in the north, to the highlands of present-day Assam and Bangladesh in the east, and the uplands of the Deccan Plateau in South India.{{Citation |last=Stein |first=Burton |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA159 |pages=159– |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1 |authorlink=Burton Stein |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922031916weblink |url-status=live }} Quote: "The realm so defined and governed was a vast territory of some {{convert|750000|sqmi|km2|disp=sqbr}}, ranging from the frontier with Central Asia in northern Afghanistan to the northern uplands of the Deccan plateau, and from the Indus basin on the west to the Assamese highlands in the east."The Mughal Empire is conventionally said to have been founded in 1526 by Babur, the Timurid Emir of Ferghana (modern-day Uzbekistan) from the Barlas tribe BOOK, Dale, Stephen F., Timurid Prince and Mughal Emperor,weblink registration, Cambridge University press, 2018, 978-0-8133-1359-7, Philadelphia, who employed aid from the neighbouring Safavid and Ottoman Empires,{{Citation |last=Gilbert |first=Marc Jason |title=South Asia in World History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 |year=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=62 |isbn=978-0-19-066137-3 |access-date=15 July 2019}} Quote: "Babur then adroitly gave the Ottomans his promise not to attack them in return for their military aid, which he received in the form of the newest of battlefield inventions, the matchlock gun and cast cannons, as well as instructors to train his men to use them." to defeat the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, in the First Battle of Panipat, and to sweep down the plains of North India. The Mughal imperial structure, however, is sometimes dated to 1600, to the rule of Babur's grandson, Akbar.{{Citation |last=Stein |first=Burton |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA159 |pages=159– |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1 |authorlink=Burton Stein |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922031916weblink |url-status=live }} Quote: "Another possible date for the beginning of the Mughal regime was 1600 when the institutions that defined the regime were set firmly in place and when the heartland of the empire was defined; both of these were the accomplishment of Babur's grandson Akbar." This imperial structure lasted until 1720, until shortly after the death of the last major emperor, Aurangzeb,{{Citation |last=Stein |first=Burton |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA159 |pages=159– |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1 |authorlink=Burton Stein |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922031916weblink |url-status=live }} Quote: "The imperial career of the Mughal house is conventionally reckoned to have ended in 1707 when the emperor Aurangzeb, a fifth-generation descendant of Babur, died. His fifty-year reign began in 1658 with the Mughal state seeming as strong as ever or even stronger. But in Aurangzeb's later years the state was brought to the brink of destruction, over which it toppled within a decade and a half after his death; by 1720 imperial Mughal rule was largely finished and an epoch of two imperial centuries had closed."{{Citation |last=Richards |first=John F. |title=The Mughal Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PAxv |page=xv |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |access-date=1 July 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922031940weblink |url-status=live }} Quote: "By the latter date (1720) the essential structure of the centralized state was disintegrated beyond repair." during whose reign the empire also achieved its maximum geographical extent. By 1760, the emperor de facto ruled the region around Old Delhi only. The empire was formally dissolved by the British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of 1857.Although the Mughal Empire was created and sustained by military warfare,{{Citation |last=Stein |first=Burton |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA159 |pages=159– |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1 |authorlink=Burton Stein |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922031916weblink |url-status=live }} Quote: "The vaunting of such progenitors pointed up the central character of the Mughal regime as a warrior state: it was born in war and it was sustained by war until the eighteenth century, when warfare destroyed it."{{Citation |last=Robb |first=Peter |title=A History of India |pages=108– |year=2011 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-34549-2}} Quote: "The Mughal state was geared for war, and succeeded while it won its battles. It controlled territory partly through its network of strongholds, from its fortified capitals in Agra, Delhi or Lahore, which defined its heartlands, to the converted and expanded forts of Rajasthan and the Deccan. The emperor's will was frequently enforced in battle. Hundreds of army scouts were an important source of information. But the empire's administrative structure too was defined by and directed at war. Local military checkpoints or thanas kept order. Directly appointed imperial military and civil commanders (faujdars) controlled the cavalry and infantry, or the administration, in each region. The peasantry in turn were often armed, able to provide supporters for regional powers, and liable to rebellion on their account: continual pacification was required of the rulers."{{Citation |last=Gilbert |first=Marc Jason |title=South Asia in World History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 |pages=75– |year=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-066137-3 |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922031915weblink |url-status=live }} Quote: "With Safavid and Ottoman aid, the Mughals would soon join these two powers in a triumvirate of warrior-driven, expansionist, and both militarily and bureaucratically efficient early modern states, now often called "gunpowder empires" due to their common proficiency is using such weapons to conquer lands they sought to control." it did not vigorously suppress the cultures and peoples it came to rule; rather it equalized and placated them through new administrative practices,{{Citation |last1=Asher |first1=Catherine B. |title=India Before Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA115 |pages=115– |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80904-7 |last2=Talbot |first2=Cynthia |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922032419weblink |url-status=live }}BOOK, Robb, Peter, A History of India, 99–100, 2011, Macmillan, 978-0-230-34549-2, and diverse ruling elites, leading to more efficient, centralised, and standardized rule.{{Citation |last1=Asher |first1=Catherine B. |title=India Before Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA152 |pages=152– |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80904-7 |last2=Talbot |first2=Cynthia |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922032419weblink |url-status=live }} The base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar.{{Citation |last=Stein |first=Burton |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA164 |pages=164– |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1 |authorlink=Burton Stein |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922032459weblink |url-status=live }} Quote: "The resource base of Akbar's new order was land revenue"{{Citation |last1=Asher |first1=Catherine B. |title=India Before Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA152 |pages=158– |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80904-7 |last2=Talbot |first2=Cynthia |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922032419weblink |url-status=live }} Quote: "The Mughal empire was based in the interior of a large land-mass and derived the vast majority of its revenues from agriculture." These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator,{{Citation |last=Stein |first=Burton |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA159 |pages=164– |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1 |authorlink=Burton Stein |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922031916weblink |url-status=live }} Quote: "... well over half of the output from the fields in his realm, after the costs of production had been met, is estimated to have been taken from the peasant producers by way of official taxes and unofficial exactions. Moreover, payments were exacted in money, and this required a well-regulated silver currency." were paid in the well-regulated silver currency, and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.{{Citation |last1=Asher |first1=Catherine B. |title=India Before Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA152 |pages=152– |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80904-7 |last2=Talbot |first2=Cynthia |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922032419weblink |url-status=live }} Quote: "His stipulation that land taxes be paid in cash forced peasants into market networks, where they could obtain the necessary money, while the standardization of imperial currency made the exchange of goods for money easier."Political scientist J. C. Sharman describes the Mughal Empire as an Asian great power which dwarfed contemporary European states in population, wealth and military power.{{harvtxt|J. C. Sharman|2019 |p=3}} The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion.{{Citation |last1=Asher |first1=Catherine B. |title=India Before Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA152 |pages=152– |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80904-7 |last2=Talbot |first2=Cynthia |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922032419weblink |url-status=live }} Quote: "Above all, the long period of relative peace ushered in by Akbar's power, and maintained by his successors, contributed to India's economic expansion." The burgeoning European presence in the Indian Ocean and an increasing demand for Indian raw and finished products generated much wealth for the Mughal court.{{Citation |last1=Asher |first1=Catherine B. |title=India Before Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA186 |pages=186– |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80904-7 |last2=Talbot |first2=Cynthia |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922033416weblink |url-status=live }} Quote: "As the European presence in India grew, their demands for Indian goods and trading rights increased, thus bringing even greater wealth to the already flush Indian courts." There was more conspicuous consumption among the Mughal elite,{{Citation |last1=Asher |first1=Catherine B. |title=India Before Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA186 |pages=186– |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80904-7 |last2=Talbot |first2=Cynthia |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922033416weblink |url-status=live }} Quote: "The elite spent more and more money on luxury goods and sumptuous lifestyles, and the rulers built entire new capital cities at times." resulting in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture, especially during the reign of Shah Jahan.{{Citation |last1=Asher |first1=Catherine B. |title=India Before Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA186 |pages=186– |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80904-7 |last2=Talbot |first2=Cynthia |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922033416weblink |url-status=live }} Quote: "All these factors resulted in greater patronage of the arts, including textiles, paintings, architecture, jewellery, and weapons to meet the ceremonial requirements of kings and princes." Among the Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites in South Asia are: Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, Red Fort, Humayun's Tomb, Lahore Fort, Shalamar Gardens, and the Taj Mahal, which is described as "the jewel of Muslim art in India, and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage."NameThe closest to an official name for the empire was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari.BOOK, Vanina, Eugenia,weblink Medieval Indian Mindscapes: Space, Time, Society, Man, Primus Books, 2012, 978-93-80607-19-1, 47, Eugenia Vanina, 19 October 2015, 22 September 2023,weblink live, Mughal administrative records also refer to the empire as "dominion of Hindustan" ({{Transliteration|fa|WilÄyat-i-HindustÄn}}),BOOK, Hardy, P., Levtzion, Nehemia, Modern European and Muslim Explanations of Conversion to Islam in South Asia: A Preliminary Survey of the Literature, Conversion to Islam,weblink 1979, Holmes & Meier, 69, 978-0-8419-0343-2, 19 March 2023, 3 April 2023,weblink live, "country of Hind" ({{Transliteration|fa|BilÄd-i-Hind}}), or "Sultanate of Al-Hind" (Salá¹anat(i) al-HindÄ«yyah) as observed in the epithet of emperor Aurangzeb.WEB,weblink Name of the Monument/ site: Tomb of Aurangzeb, asiaurangabad.in,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20150923175254weblink">weblink 23 September 2015, Contemporary chronicles from Qing China referred to the empire as Hindustan (HéndÅ«sÄ«tÇŽn).BOOK, Mosca, Matthew,weblink From Frontier Policy to Foreign Policy: The Question of India and the Transformation of Geopolitics in Qing China, 2013-02-20, Stanford University Press, 978-0-8047-8538-9, 78–94, en, 7 November 2023, 7 November 2023,weblink live, In the west, the term "Mughal" was used for the emperor, and by extension, the empire as a whole.BOOK, Fontana, Michela,weblink Matteo Ricci: A Jesuit in the Ming Court, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2011, 978-1-4422-0588-8, 32, 19 October 2015, 22 September 2023,weblink live, The Mughal designation for their own dynasty was Gurkani ({{Transliteration|fa|GÅ«rkÄniyÄn}}), a reference to their descent from the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur, who took the title {{Transliteration|fa|GÅ«rkÄn}} 'son-in-law' after his marriage to a Chinggisid princess.BOOK, Zahir ud-Din Mohammad, The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor, Baburnama, Modern Library, 2002, 978-0-375-76137-9, Thackston, Wheeler M., Wheeler Thackston, New York, xlvi, In India the dynasty always called itself Gurkani, after Temür's title Gurkân, the Persianized form of the Mongolian , 'son-in-law,' a title he assumed after his marriage to a Genghisid princess., Babur, The word Mughal (also spelled MogulBOOK, John Walbridge, God and Logic in Islam: The Caliphate of Reason, 165, Persianate Mogul Empire., or Moghul in English) is the Indo-Persian form of Mongol. The Mughal dynasty's early followers were Chagatai Turks, and not mongols. although the dynasty claimed descent from Genghis Khan.BOOK, Canfield, Robert L.,weblink Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective, Cambridge University Press, 2002, 978-0-521-52291-5, 20, The term Mughal was applied to them in India by association with the Mongols and to distinguish them from the local Indian and Afghan elite which ruled the Delhi Sultanate.BOOK, Hodgson, Marshall G. S., Marshall Hodgson,weblink The Venture of Islam, University of Chicago Press, 2009, 978-0-226-34688-5, 3, 62, The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by Indologists.BOOK, Huskin, Frans Husken,weblink Reading Asia: New Research in Asian Studies, Dick van der Meij, Routledge, 2004, 978-1-136-84377-8, 104, In Marshall Hodgson's view, the dynasty should be called Timurid/Timuri or Indo-Timuri.History{{See also|Mughal dynasty}}Babur and Humayun (1526–1556)(File:Joppen map-India in 1525 published 1907 by Longmans.jpg|thumb|right|India in 1525 just before the onset of Mughal rule)The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur (reigned 1526–1530), a Central Asian ruler who was descended from the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur (the founder of the Timurid Empire) on his father's side, and from Genghis Khan on his mother's side.BOOK, Berndl, Klaus, National Geographic Visual History of the World, National Geographic Society, 2005, 978-0-7922-3695-5, 318–320, Paternally, Babur belonged to the Turkicized Barlas tribe of Mongol origin.Gérard Chaliand, A Global History of War: From Assyria to the Twenty-First Century, University of California Press, California 2014, p. 151 Ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions.BOOK, Bayley, Christopher, The European Emergence. The Mughals Ascendant, 0-7054-0982-1, 151, He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass. Babur's forces defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. Before the battle, Babur sought divine favour by abjuring liquor, breaking the wine vessels and pouring the wine down a well.However, by this time Lodi's empire was already crumbling, and it was the Rajput Confederacy which was the strongest power of Northern India under the capable rule of Rana Sanga of Mewar. He defeated Babur in the Battle of Bayana.BOOK, Hooja, Rima,weblink A History of Rajasthan, Rupa, 2006, 978-81-291-1501-0, 454, From Babur's memoirs we learn that Sanga's successes against the Mughal advance guard commanded by Abdul Aziz, and other forces at Bayana, ... severely demoralised the fighting spirit of Babur's troops encamped near Sikri., 16 June 2022, 22 September 2023,weblink live, However, in the decisive Battle of Khanwa which was fought near Agra, the Timurid forces of Babur defeated the Rajput army of Sanga. This battle was one of the most decisive and historic battles in Indian history, as it sealed the fate of Northern India for the next two centuries.After the battle, the centre of Mughal power became Agra instead of Kabul. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India.BOOK, Bayley, Christopher, The European Emergence. The Mughals Ascendant, 0-7054-0982-1, 154, The instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun (reigned 1530–1556), who was forced into exile in Persia by rebels. The Sur Empire (1540–1555), founded by Sher Shah Suri (reigned 1540–1545), briefly interrupted Mughal rule. Humayun's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the later restored Mughal Empire.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} Humayun's triumphant return from Persia in 1555 restored Mughal rule in some parts of India, but he died in an accident the next year.Akbar to Aurangzeb (1556–1707)File:Jesuits at Akbar's court.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Akbar holds a religious assembly of different faiths in the Ibadat KhanaIbadat KhanaAkbar (reigned 1556–1605) was born Jalal-ud-din MuhammadWEB, Ballhatchet, Kenneth A., Akbar,weblink 17 July 2017, Encyclopædia Britannica, 25 May 2023,weblink live, in the Rajput Umarkot Fort,BOOK, Smith, Vincent Arthur,weblink Akbar the Great Mogul, 1542–1605, Oxford at The Clarendon Press, 1917, 13–14, Vincent Arthur Smith, to Humayun and his wife Hamida Banu Begum, a Persian princess.BOOK, Begum, Gulbadan,weblink The History of HumÄyÅ«n (HumÄyÅ«n-NÄma), Royal Asiatic Society, 1902, 237–239, Beveridge, Annette S., Gulbadan Begum, Annette Beveridge, Akbar succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, who helped consolidate the Mughal Empire in India. Through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} He created a new ruling elite loyal to him, implemented a modern administration, and encouraged cultural developments. He increased trade with European trading companies. India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and economic development.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} Akbar allowed freedom of religion at his court and attempted to resolve socio-political and cultural differences in his empire by establishing a new religion, Din-i-Ilahi, with strong characteristics of a ruler cult. He left his son an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge.Jahangir (born Salim, reigned 1605–1627) was born to Akbar and his wife Mariam-uz-Zamani, an Indian Rajput princess.BOOK, Gilbert, Marc Jason,weblink South Asia in World History, Oxford University Press, 2017, 978-0-19-976034-3, 79, 22 August 2017, 22 September 2023,weblink live, Salim was named after the Indian Sufi saint, Salim Chishti.BOOK, Muhammad-Hadi, Preface to The Jahangirnama, 1999, Oxford University Press, 978-0-19-512718-8, 4, Thackston, Wheeler M., Wheeler Thackston, BOOK, Jahangir, Emperor of Hindustan, The Jahangirnama: Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India, 1999, Oxford University Press, 978-0-19-512718-8, 65, Thackston, Wheeler M., Wheeler Thackston, He "was addicted to opium, neglected the affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival court cliques". Jahangir distinguished himself from Akbar by making substantial efforts to gain the support of the Islamic religious establishment. One way he did this was by bestowing many more madad-i-ma'ash (tax-free personal land revenue grants given to religiously learned or spiritually worthy individuals) than Akbar had.BOOK, Faruqui, Munis D., The Princes of the Mughal Empire, 1504–1719, Cambridge University Press, 2012, 978-1-107-02217-1, 268–269, In contrast to Akbar, Jahangir came into conflict with non-Muslim religious leaders, notably the Sikh guru Arjan, whose execution was the first of many conflicts between the Mughal empire and the Sikh community.{{Citation |last=Robb |first=Peter |title=A History of India |pages=97–98 |year=2011 |publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education |isbn=978-0-230-34424-2}}BOOK, Asher, Catherine B.,weblink India before Europe, Talbot, Cynthia, 2006, Cambridge University Press, 0-521-80904-5, 267, 61303480, WEB, 30 September 2009, BBC – Religions – Sikhism: Origins of Sikhism,weblink 19 February 2021, BBC, en-GB, 17 August 2018,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20180817220705weblink">weblink live, File:Khalili Collection Islamic Art mss 0874.3.jpg|thumb|right|Group portrait of Mughal rulers, from Babur to Aurangzeb, with the Mughal ancestor Timur seated in the middle. On the left: Shah Jahan, Akbar and Babur, with Abu Sa'id of Samarkand and Timur's son, Miran Shah. On the right: Aurangzeb, Jahangir and Humayun, and two of Timur's other offspring Umar Shaykh and Muhammad SultanMuhammad SultanShah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658) was born to Jahangir and his wife Jagat Gosain, a Rajput princess.BOOK, Mohammada, Malika,weblink The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India, Aakar Books, 2007, 978-81-89833-18-3, 300, His reign ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture.BOOK, Mehta, Jaswant Lal, Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 1984, 978-81-207-1015-3, 2nd, II, 59, en, 1008395679, First published 1981, During the reign of Shah Jahan, the splendour of the Mughal court reached its peak, as exemplified by the Taj Mahal. The cost of maintaining the court, however, began to exceed the revenue coming in. His reign was called as "The Golden Age of Mughal Architecture". Shah Jahan extended the Mughal empire to the Deccan by ending the Nizam Shahi dynasty and forcing the Adil Shahis and Qutb Shahis to pay tribute.BOOK, Singhal, Damodar P.,weblink A History of the Indian People, Methuen, 1983, 978-0-413-48730-8, 193, 4 May 2021, 22 September 2023,weblink live, Shah Jahan's eldest son, the liberal Dara Shikoh, became regent in 1658, as a result of his father's illness.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} Dara championed a syncretistic Hindu-Muslim culture, emulating his great-grandfather Akbar.Dara Shikoh {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403231619weblink |date=3 April 2023 }} Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, by Josef W. Meri, Jere L Bacharach. Routledge, 2005. {{ISBN|0-415-96690-6}}. Page 195-196. With the support of the Islamic orthodoxy, however, a younger son of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb ({{Reign|1658|1707}}), seized the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed. Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb kept Shah Jahan imprisoned until he died in 1666.{{rp|68}} Aurangzeb oversaw an increase in the Islamicization of the Mughal state. He encouraged conversion to Islam, reinstated the jizya on non-Muslims, and compiled the Fatawa 'Alamgiri, a collection of Islamic law. Aurangzeb also ordered the execution of the Sikh guru Tegh Bahadur, leading to the militarization of the Sikh community.BOOK, Robb, Peter, A History of India, Macmillan International Higher Education, 2011, 978-0-230-34424-2, 98, From the imperial perspective, conversion to Islam integrated local elites into the king's vision of network of shared identity that would join disparate groups throughout the empire in obedience to the Mughal emperor.BOOK, Abhishek Kaicker,weblink The King and the People: Sovereignty and Popular Politics in Mughal Delhi, 2020, Oxford University Press, 978-0-19-007067-0, 19 March 2023, 3 April 2023,weblink live, His campaign to conquer South and Western India nominally increased the size of Mughal Empire but had a ruinous effect on Mughal Empire.BOOK, Sarkar Jadunath,weblink A Short History Of Aurangzib, 1928, This campaign also had a ruinous effect on Mughal Treasury, and Emperor's absence led to a severe decline in Governance in Northern India. Marathas started expanding northwards shortly after the death of Aurangzeb, defeated the Mughals in Delhi and Bhopal, and extended their empire up to Peshawar by 1758.BOOK, Mikaberidze, Alexander,weblink Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia, 2011, ABC-CLIO, 978-1-59884-337-8, 43, en, Aurangzeb is considered India's most controversial king,BOOK, Truschke, Audrey,weblink Aurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King, Stanford University Press, 2017, 978-1-5036-0259-5, with some historians arguing his religious conservatism and intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society, while other historians question this, noting that he built Hindu temples,BOOK, Copland, Ian, A History of State and Religion in India, Mabbett, Ian, Roy, Asim, Brittlebank, Kate, Bowles, Adam, Routledge, 2013, 978-1-136-45950-4, 119, 3, employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did, opposed bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims.{{rp|58}} Despite these allegations, it has been acknowledged that Emperor Aurangzeh enacted repressive policies towards non-Muslims, which also resulted to a major rebellion by the Marathas.WEB, Verghese, Ajay, Foa, Roberto Stefan, November 5, 2018, Precolonial Ethnic Violence:The Case of Hindu-Muslim Conflict in India,weblink April 7, 2023, Boston University, 7 April 2023,weblink live,Decline (1707–1857){{Further|Bahadur Shah Zafar}}File:Farrukhsiyar Procession in front of the Great Mosque of Delhi.png|Delhi under the puppet-emperor Farrukhsiyar. Effective power was held by the thumb|left(File:Equestrian Portrait of Shah Alam II, 18th century.jpg|thumb|left|Shah Alam II on horseback)Aurangzeb's son, Bahadur Shah I, repealed the religious policies of his father and attempted to reform the administration. "However, after he died in 1712, the Mughal dynasty began to sink into chaos and violent feuds. In 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended the throne", as figureheads under the rule of a brotherhood of nobles belonging to the Indian Muslim caste known as the Sadaat-e-Bara, whose leaders, the Sayyid Brothers, became the de facto sovereigns of the empire.BOOK, Audrey Truschke,weblink the Language of History:Sanskrit Narratives of Indo-Muslim Rule, 2021, Publisher:Columbia University Press, 978-0-231-55195-3, 19 March 2023, 3 April 2023,weblink live, BOOK, Muhammad Yasin,weblink A Social History of Islamic India, 1605–1748, 1958, Upper India Publishing House, 18, became virtual rulers and 'de facto' sovereigns when they began to make and unmake emperors. They had developed a sort of common brotherhood among themselves, 27 March 2023, 3 April 2023,weblink live, During the reign of Muhammad Shah (reigned 1719–1748), the empire began to break up, and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughal to Maratha hands. As the Mughals tried to suppress the independence of Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I in the Deccan, he encouraged the Marathas to invade central and northern India.BOOK, Columbia University Press,weblink Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture, 2000, Columbia University Press, 978-0-231-11004-4, 285, 19 March 2023, 3 April 2023,weblink live, BOOK, Richard M. Eaton, Expanding Frontiers in South Asian and World History Essays in Honour of John F. Richards, 2013, Cambridge University Press, 21,weblink "I consider all this army (Marathas) as my own.....I will enter into an understanding with them and entrust the Mulukgiri(raiding) on that side of the Narmada to them.", JOURNAL, Pagadi, Setu Madhavarao, Setumadhavarao Pagadi, Maratha-Nizam Relations : Nizam-Ul-Mulk's Letters, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 51, 1/4, 1970, 94, The Mughal court was hostile to Nizam-ul-Mulk..... Nizam did not interfere with the Maratha activities in Malwa and Gujarat.....Nizam-ul-Mulk considered the Maratha army...,weblink The far-off Indian campaign of Nader Shah, who had previously reestablished Iranian suzerainty over most of West Asia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, culminated with the Sack of Delhi and shattered the remnants of Mughal power and prestige. Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their affairs and broke away to form independent kingdoms.BOOK, Salma Ahmed Farooqui, 2011, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-eighteenth Century, Pearson Education India, 309,weblink 978-8131732021, Even more disturbing was the fact that the assertion of independence had spread to other part of the empire too, and the governors of Hyderabad, Bengal and Awadh soon established independent kingdoms as well., But, according to Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, the Mughal Emperor continued to be the highest manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, Hindu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgements of the emperor as the sovereign of India.BOOK, Bose, Sugata,weblink Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy, Jalal, Ayesha, Routledge, 2004, 978-0-203-71253-5, 2nd, 41, Sugata Bose, Ayesha Jalal, registration, Meanwhile, some regional polities within the increasingly fragmented Mughal Empire, involved themselves and the state in global conflicts, leading only to defeat and loss of territory during the Carnatic Wars and the Bengal War.(File:Joppen map-India in 1751 published 1907 by Longmans.jpg|thumb|right|The remnants of the empire in 1751)The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II (1759–1806) made futile attempts to reverse the Mughal decline. Third Battle of Panipat was fought between the Maratha Empire and the Afghans (led by Abdali) in 1761 in which the Afghans were victorious. In 1771, the Marathas recaptured Delhi from Afghan control and in 1784 they officially became the protectors of the emperor in Delhi,BOOK, Rathod, N.G.,weblink The Great Maratha Mahadaji Scindia, Sarup & Sons, 1994, 978-81-85431-52-9, New Delhi, 8, a state of affairs that continued until the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Thereafter, the British East India Company became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi. The British East India Company took control of the former Mughal province of Bengal-Bihar in 1793 after it abolished local rule (Nizamat) that lasted until 1858, marking the beginning of British colonial era over the Indian subcontinent. By 1857 a considerable part of former Mughal India was under the East India Company's control. After a crushing defeat in the war of 1857–1858 which he nominally led, the last Mughal, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was deposed by the British East India Company and exiled in 1858. Zafar was exiled to Rangoon, Burma.{{Citation |last=Conermann |first=Stephan |title=Mughal Empire |date=2015-08-04 |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-early-modern-history-online/*-COM_024206 |access-date=2022-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326064353weblink |url-status=live |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/2352-0272_emho_com_024206 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Early Modern History Online}} His wife Zeenat Mahal and some of the remaining members of the family accompanied him. At 4 am on 7 October 1858, Zafar along with his wives, and two remaining sons began his journey towards Rangoon in bullock carts escorted by 9th Lancers under the command of Lieutenant Ommaney.BOOK, Dalrymple, William, The Last Mughal, Penguin Books, 2007, 978-0-14-310243-4, Through the Government of India Act 1858 the British Crown assumed direct control of East India Company-held territories in India in the form of the new British Raj. In 1876 the British Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India.(File:Portrait of Bahadur Shah II as calligrapher. Delhi, ca. 1850, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. - копиÑ.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Portrait of Bahadur Shah II)Causes of declineHistorians have offered numerous explanations for the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire between 1707 and 1720, after a century of growth and prosperity. As the Mughals were visibly unassailable across 17th century, external threat sprang out from several sectors, such as from the sea, as the innoculous European trading companies, such as British East Indies Company, racing to get permission from the Mughal rulers to establish trades and factories in India.BOOK, Kirsten McKenzie, Robert Aldrich, The Routledge History of Western Empires, 4 December 2013, Taylor & Francis, 9781317999874, 333,weblink 14 March 2024, En, ebook, In fiscal terms, the throne lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers, the emirs (nobles) and their entourages. The emperor lost authority, as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in the central authorities, and made their deals with local men of influence. The imperial army bogged down in long, futile wars against the more aggressive Marathas, and lost its fighting spirit. Finally came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne. After the execution of Emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1719, local Mughal successor states took power in region after region.JOURNAL, Richards, J.F., 1981, Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 23, 2, 285–308, 10.1017/s0010417500013311, 178737, 154809724, Contemporary chroniclers bewailed the decay they witnessed, a theme picked up by the first British historians who wanted to underscore the need for a British-led rejuvenation.BOOK, Sir William Wilson Hunter,weblink Imperial gazetteer of India, Clarendon Press, 1908, 107,Modern views on the declineSince the 1970s historians have taken multiple approaches to the decline, with little consensus on which factor was dominant. The psychological interpretations emphasise depravity in high places, excessive luxury, and increasingly narrow views that left the rulers unprepared for an external challenge. A Marxist school (led by Irfan Habib and based at Aligarh Muslim University) emphasises excessive exploitation of the peasantry by the rich, which stripped away the will and the means to support the regime.JOURNAL, Habib, Irfan, March 1969, Potentialities of Capitalistic Development in the Economy of Mughal India, Journal of Economic History, 29, 1, 32–78, 10.1017/s0022050700097825, 2115498, 91170802, As the Mughals were visibly unassailable across 17th century, external threat sprang out from several sectors, such as from the sea, as the innoculous European trading companies, such as British East Indies Company, racing to get permission from the Mughal rulers to establish trades and factories in India.BOOK, Kirsten McKenzie, Robert Aldrich, The Routledge History of Western Empires, 4 December 2013, Taylor & Francis, 9781317999874, 333,weblink 14 March 2024, En, ebook, Karen Leonard has focused on the failure of the regime to work with Hindu bankers, whose financial support was increasingly needed; the bankers then helped the Maratha and the British.JOURNAL, Leonard, Karen, April 1979, The 'Great Firm' Theory of the Decline of the Mughal Empire,weblink Comparative Studies in Society and History, 21, 2, 151–167, 10.1017/s0010417500012792, 178414, 54775994, 6 July 2019, 21 December 2019,weblink live, In a religious interpretation, some scholars argue that the Hindu powers revolted against the rule of a Muslim dynasty.BOOK, Hallissey, Robert C.,weblink The Rajput Rebellion Against Aurangzeb, University of Missouri Press, 1977, 978-0-8262-0222-2, ix, x, 84, registration, Finally, other scholars argue that the very prosperity of the Empire inspired the provinces to achieve a high degree of independence, thus weakening the imperial court.BOOK, Claude Markovits,weblink A History of Modern India, 1480–1950, 2004, Anthem Press, 978-1-84331-004-4, 172–173, First published 1994 as Histoire de l'Inde Moderne, Jeffrey G. Williamson has argued that the Indian economy went through deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of the Mughal Empire, with British rule later causing further deindustrialization.WEB, Jeffrey G. Williamson, David Clingingsmith, August 2005, India's Deindustrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries,weblink 18 May 2017, Harvard University, 13 December 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20161213044056weblink">weblink live, According to Williamson, the decline of the Mughal Empire led to a decline in agricultural productivity, which drove up food prices, then nominal wages, and then textile prices, which led to India losing a share of the world textile market to Britain even before it had superior factory technology.BOOK, Jeffrey G. Williamson,weblink Trade and Poverty: When the Third World Fell Behind, MIT Press, 2011, 978-0-262-29518-5, 91, Jeffrey G. Williamson, 15 August 2017, 22 September 2023,weblink live, Indian textiles, however, still maintained a competitive advantage over British textiles up until the 19th century.CONFERENCE, Broadberry, Stephen, Gupta, Bishnupriya, 2005, Cotton textiles and the great divergence: Lancashire, India and shifting competitive advantage, 1600–1850,weblink The Rise, Organization, and Institutional Framework of Factor Markets, Utrecht University, 5 December 2016,weblink 10 September 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160910075425weblink">weblink live,Administration and stateFile:Joppen map-India in 1605 published 1907 by Longmans.jpg|thumb|right|India in 1605 and the end of emperor Akbar's reign; the map shows the different subahsubahThe Mughal Empire had a highly centralised, bureaucratic government, most of which was instituted during the rule of the third Mughal emperor Akbar.{{Citation |last=Robinson |first=Francis |title=Mughal Empire |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0549 |year=2009 |access-date=2022-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329002419weblink |url-status=live |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-530513-5 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World}}{{Citation |last1=Burton-Page |first1=J. |title=Mug̲h̲als |date=2012-04-24 |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/*-COM_0778 |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition |access-date=2022-03-31 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_com_0778 |last2=Islam |first2=Riazul |last3=Athar Ali |first3=M. |last4=Moosvi |first4=Shireen |last5=Moreland |first5=W. H. |last6=Bosworth |first6=C. E. |last7=Schimmel |first7=Annemarie |last8=Koch |first8=Ebba |last9=Hall |first9=Margaret |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331173633weblink |url-status=live }} The central government was headed by the Mughal emperor; immediately beneath him were four ministries. The finance/revenue ministry, headed by an official called a diwan, was responsible for controlling revenues from the empire's territories, calculating tax revenues, and using this information to distribute assignments. The ministry of the military (army/intelligence) was headed by an official titled mir bakhshi, who was in charge of military organisation, messenger service, and the mansabdari system. The ministry in charge of law/religious patronage was the responsibility of the sadr as-sudr, who appointed judges and managed charities and stipends. Another ministry was dedicated to the imperial household and public works, headed by the mir saman. Of these ministers, the diwan held the most importance, and typically acted as the wazir (prime minister) of the empire.BOOK, Gladden, E.N.,weblink A History of Public Administration Volume II: From the Eleventh Century to the Present Day, 23 May 2019, Routledge, 978-0-429-42321-5, 234–236,Administrative divisionsThe empire was divided into Subah (provinces), each of which was headed by a provincial governor called a subadar. The structure of the central government was mirrored at the provincial level; each suba had its own bakhshi, sadr as-sudr, and finance minister that reported directly to the central government rather than the subahdar. Subas were subdivided into administrative units known as sarkars, which were further divided into groups of villages known as parganas. Mughal government in the pargana consisted of a Muslim judge and local tax collector. Parganas were the basic administrative unit of the Mughal empire.BOOK, Michael, Bernardo A., Statemaking and Territory in South Asia, 2012, 67, Anthem Press, 10.7135/upo9780857285324.005, 978-0-85728-532-4, Mughal administrative divisions were not static. Territories were often rearranged and reconstituted for better administrative control, and to extend cultivation. For example, a sarkar could turn into a subah, and Parganas were often transferred between sarkars. The hierarchy of division was ambiguous sometimes, as a territory could fall under multiple overlapping jurisdictions. Administrative divisions were also vague in their geography – the Mughal state did not have enough resources or authority to undertake detailed land surveys, and hence the geographical limits of these divisions were not formalised and maps were not created. The Mughals instead recorded detailed statistics about each division, to assess the territory's capacity for revenue, based on simpler land surveys.BOOK, Michael, Bernardo A., Statemaking and Territory in South Asia, 2012, 69, 75, 77-78, Anthem Press, 10.7135/upo9780857285324.005, 978-0-85728-532-4,CapitalsThe Mughals had multiple imperial capitals, established throughout their rule. These were the cities of Agra, Delhi, Lahore, and Fatehpur Sikri. Power often shifted back and forth between these capitals.JOURNAL, Sinopoli, Carla M., 1994, Monumentality and Mobility in Mughal Capitals,weblink Asian Perspectives, 33, 2, 294–295, 0066-8435, 42928323, 11 June 2021, 1 May 2022,weblink live, Sometimes this was necessitated by political and military demands, but shifts also occurred for ideological reasons (for example, Akbar's establishment of Fatehpur Sikri), or even simply because the cost of establishing a new capital was marginal.JOURNAL, Sinopoli, Carla M., 1994, Monumentality and Mobility in Mughal Capitals,weblink Asian Perspectives, 33, 2, 304–305, 0066-8435, 42928323, 11 June 2021, 1 May 2022,weblink live, Situations where there were two simultaneous capitals happened multiple times in Mughal history. Certain cities also served as short-term, provincial capitals, as was the case with Aurangzeb's shift to Aurangabad in the Deccan. Kabul was the summer capital of Mughals from 1526 to 1681.JOURNAL, Samrin, Farah, 2005, The City of Kabul Under the Mughals,weblink Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 66, 1307, 44145943, 14 December 2021, 29 June 2021,weblink live, The imperial camp, used for military expeditions and royal tours, also served as a kind of mobile, "de facto" administrative capital. From the time of Akbar, Mughal camps were huge in scale, accompanied by numerous personages associated with the royal court, as well as soldiers and labourers. All administration and governance were carried out within them. The Mughal Emperors spent a significant portion of their ruling period within these camps.JOURNAL, Sinopoli, Carla M., 1994, Monumentality and Mobility in Mughal Capitals,weblink Asian Perspectives, 33, 2, 296 & 298, 0066-8435, 42928323, 11 June 2021, 1 May 2022,weblink live, After Aurangzeb, the Mughal capital definitively became the walled city of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi).BOOK, Bosworth, Clifford Edmund,weblink Historic cities of the Islamic world, 2008, Brill, 978-90-04-15388-2, 127, 231801473,Law(File:Police Chuprasi, Delhi.png|Police in Delhi under Bahadur Shah II, 1842|thumb)The Mughal Empire's legal system was context-specific and evolved throughout the empire's rule. Being a Muslim state, the empire employed fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and therefore the fundamental institutions of Islamic law such as those of the qadi (judge), mufti (jurisconsult), and muhtasib (censor and market supervisor) were well-established in the Mughal Empire. However, the dispensation of justice also depended on other factors, such as administrative rules, local customs, and political convenience. This was due to Persianate influences on Mughal ideology, and that the Mughal Empire governed a non-Muslim majority.{{Citation |last=Chatterjee |first=Nandini |title=Courts of law, Mughal |date=2019-12-01 |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM_25171 |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE |access-date=2021-12-13 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_com_25171 |archive-date=13 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213060747weblink |url-status=live }} Scholar Mouez Khalfaoui notes that legal institutions in the Mughal Empire systemically suffered from the corruption of local judges.Legal ideologyThe Mughal Empire followed the Sunni Hanafi system of jurisprudence. In its early years, the empire relied on Hanafi legal references inherited from its predecessor, the Delhi Sultanate. These included the al-Hidayah (the best guidance) and the Fatawa al-Tatarkhaniyya (religious decisions of the Emire Tatarkhan). During the Mughal Empire's peak, the Fatawa 'Alamgiri was commissioned by Emperor Aurangzeb. This compendium of Hanafi law sought to serve as a central reference for the Mughal state that dealt with the specifics of the South Asian context.WEB, Khalfaoui, Mouez, Mughal Empire and Law,weblink Oxford Islamic Studies Online, 13 December 2021, 13 December 2021,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20211213062301weblink">weblink dead, The Mughal Empire also drew on Persian notions of kingship. Particularly, this meant that the Mughal emperor was considered the supreme authority on legal affairs.Courts of lawVarious kinds of courts existed in the Mughal Empire. One such court was that of the qadi. The Mughal qadi was responsible for dispensing justice; this included settling disputes, judging people for crimes, and dealing with inheritances and orphans. The qadi also had additional importance in documents, as the seal of the qadi was required to validate deeds and tax records. Qadis did not constitute a single position, but made up a hierarchy. For example, the most basic kind was the pargana (district) qadi. More prestigious positions were those of the qadi al-quddat (judge of judges) who accompanied the mobile imperial camp, and the qadi-yi lashkar (judge of the army). Qadis were usually appointed by the emperor or the sadr-us-sudr (chief of charities).{{Citation |last=Conermann |first=Stephan |title=Mughal Empire |date=2015-08-04 |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-early-modern-history-online/*-COM_024206 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Early Modern History Online |access-date=2022-03-25 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/2352-0272_emho_com_024206 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326064353weblink |url-status=live }} The jurisdiction of the qadi was availed by Muslims and non-Muslims alike.JOURNAL, Chatterjee, Nandini, 2014, Reflections on Religious Difference and Permissive Inclusion in Mughal Law,weblink Journal of Law and Religion, 29, 3, 396–415, 10.1017/jlr.2014.20, 0748-0814, 143513602, free, 10871/15975, 13 December 2021, 22 September 2023,weblink live, The jagirdar (local tax collector) was another kind of official approach, especially for high-stakes cases. Subjects of the Mughal Empire also took their grievances to the courts of superior officials who held more authority and punitive power than the local qadi. Such officials included the kotwal (local police), the faujdar (an officer controlling multiple districts and troops of soldiers), and the most powerful, the subahdar (provincial governor). In some cases, the emperor dispensed justice directly. Jahangir was known to have installed a "chain of justice" in the Agra Fort that any aggrieved subject could shake to get the attention of the emperor and bypass the inefficacy of officials.BOOK, Eaton, Richard M.,weblink India in the Persianate Age : 1000–1765, University of California Press, 2019, 978-0-520-97423-4, 272, 1243310832, Self-regulating tribunals operating at the community or village level were common, but sparse documentation of them exists. For example, it is unclear how panchayats (village councils) operated in the Mughal era.EconomyThe economy in the Indian Subcontinent during the Mughal era performed just as it did in ancient times, though now it would face the stress of extensive regional tensions.BOOK, Schmidt, Karl J., {{google books, y, BqdzCQAAQBAJ, |title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History |year=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-47681-8}} The Mughal economy was large and prosperous.BOOK, Schmidt, Karl J.,weblink An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History, Routledge, 2015, 978-1-317-47681-8, 100–, 9 August 2017, 22 September 2023,weblink live, BOOK, Maddison, Angus,weblink Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics, OECD Publishing, 2003, 978-92-64-10414-3, 256–, Angus Maddison, 9 August 2017, 20 January 2023,weblink live, India was producing 24.5% of the world's manufacturing output up until 1750.Jeffrey G. Williamson & David Clingingsmith, India's Deindustrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329075904weblink |date=29 March 2017 }}, Global Economic History Network, London School of Economics India's economy has been described as a form of proto-industrialization, like that of 18th-century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution.Modern historians and researchers generally agreed that The Mughal empire economic policy character is resembling Laissez-faire system in dealing with tradings and bullions, to achieve the economic ends.{{Harvtxt|J.J.L. Gommans|2002 |p=75 }}{{sfn|Streusand|2018|p="...Mughal rulers pursued a more laissez-faire economic approach, benefiting from the prosperity of..."}}BOOK, A. Bayly, C., Fibiger Bang, Peter, Scheidel, Walter, The Oxford World History of Empire Volume Two: The History of Empires, 2020, Oxford University Press, 9780197532775, 775,weblink 18 April 2024, En, {{harvtxt|M. Athar Ali |2008}}The Mughals were responsible for building an extensive road system, creating a uniform currency, and the unification of the country.BOOK, Richards, John F.,weblink The Mughal Empire, Cambridge University Press, 1995, 978-0-521-56603-2, John F. Richards, {{rp|185–204}} The empire had an extensive road network, which was vital to the economic infrastructure, built by a public works department set up by the Mughals which designed, constructed and maintained roads linking towns and cities across the empire, making trade easier to conduct.The main base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar. These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator, were paid in the well-regulated silver currency, and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.Coinage(File:Coin of Aurangzeb, minted in Kabul.jpg|thumb|right|Coin of Aurangzeb, minted in Kabul, dated 1691/2)The Mughals adopted and standardised the rupee (rupiya, or silver) and dam (copper) currencies introduced by Sur Emperor Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule.WEB, Picture of original Mughal rupiya introduced by Sher Shah Suri,weblink dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20021005231609weblink">weblink 5 October 2002, 4 August 2017, The currency was initially 48 dams to a single rupee in the beginning of Akbar's reign, before it later became 38 dams to a rupee in the 1580s, with the dam's value rising further in the 17th century as a result of new industrial uses for copper, such as in bronze cannons and brass utensils. The dam was initially the most common coin in Akbar's time, before being replaced by the rupee as the most common coin in succeeding reigns. The dam's value was later worth 30 to a rupee towards the end of Jahangir's reign, and then 16 to a rupee by the 1660s.BOOK, Irfan Habib,weblink The Cambridge Economic History of India, Dharma Kumar, Tapan Raychaudhuri, Cambridge University Press, 1987, 1, 464, Irfan Habib, Dharma Kumar, Tapan Raychaudhuri, 11 August 2017, 4 August 2017,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20170804231000weblink">weblink live, The Mughals minted coins with high purity, never dropping below 96%, and without debasement until the 1720s.BOOK, Richards, John F.,weblink The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World, University of California Press, 2003, 978-0-520-93935-6, 27–, John F. Richards, 9 August 2017, 22 September 2023,weblink live, Despite India having its stocks of gold and silver, the Mughals produced minimal gold of their own but mostly minted coins from imported bullion, as a result of the empire's strong export-driven economy, with global demand for Indian agricultural and industrial products drawing a steady stream of precious metals into India. Around 80% of Mughal India's imports were bullion, mostly silver,BOOK, Tracy, James D.,weblink The Political Economy of Merchant Empires: State Power and World Trade, 1350–1750, Cambridge University Press, 1997, 978-0-521-57464-8, 97–, 9 August 2017, 22 September 2023,weblink live, with major sources of imported bullion including the New World and Japan, which in turn imported large quantities of textiles and silk from the Bengal Subah province.LabourThe historian Shireen Moosvi estimates that in terms of contributions to the Mughal economy, in the late 16th century, the primary sector contributed 52%, the secondary sector 18% and the tertiary sector 29%; the secondary sector contributed a higher percentage than in early 20th-century British India, where the secondary sector only contributed 11% to the economy.{{sfn|Moosvi|2015|p=433}} In terms of the urban-rural divide, 18% of Mughal India's labour force were urban and 82% were rural, contributing 52% and 48% to the economy, respectively.BOOK, Maddison, Angus,weblink Class Structure and Economic Growth: India and Pakistan Since the Moghuls, Taylor & Francis, 1971, 978-0-415-38259-5, 33, Angus Maddison, 22 August 2017, 22 September 2023,weblink live, According to Stephen Broadberry and Bishnupriya Gupta, grain wages in India were comparable to England in the 16th and 17th centuries, but diverged in the 18th century when they fell to 20-40% of England's wages.WEB, Broadberry, Stephen, Gupta, Bishnupriya, 2003, The Early Modern Great Divergence: Wages, Prices and Economic Development in Europe and Asia 1500–1800,weblink 34, 22 January 2021, 24 May 2022,weblink live, BOOK, Parthasarathi, Prasannan, Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850, 2011, 42, This, however, is disputed by Parthasarathi and Sivramkrishna. Parthasarathi cites his estimates that grain wages for weaving and spinning in mid-18th century Bengal and South India were comparable to Britain.BOOK, Parthasarathi, Prasannan, Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850, 2011, 39, Similarly, Sivramkrishna analyzed agricultural surveys conducted in Mysore by Francis Buchanan during 1800–1801, arrived at estimates using a "subsistence basket" that aggregated millet income could be almost five times subsistence level, while corresponding rice income was three times that much.JOURNAL, Sivramkrishna, Sashi, 2009, Ascertaining Living Standards in Erstwhile Mysore, Southern India, from Francis Buchanan's Journey of 1800–01: An Empirical Contribution to the Great Divergence,weblink Journal of the Economic and Social History, 52, 4, 726, 22 January 2021, 2 May 2022,weblink live, That could be comparable to advance part of Europe.JOURNAL, Sivramkrishna, Sashi, 2009, Ascertaining Living Standards in Erstwhile Mysore, Southern India, from Francis Buchanan's Journey of 1800–01: An Empirical Contribution to the Great Divergence,weblink Journal of the Economic and Social History, 52, 4, 731, 22 January 2021, 2 May 2022,weblink live, Due to the scarcity of data, however, more research is needed before drawing any conclusion.BOOK, Parthasarathi, Prasannan, Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850, 2011, 45, JOURNAL, Sivramkrishna, Sashi, 2009, Ascertaining Living Standards in Erstwhile Mysore, Southern India, from Francis Buchanan's Journey of 1800–01: An Empirical Contribution to the Great Divergence,weblink Journal of the Economic and Social History, 52, 4, 729, 22 January 2021, 2 May 2022,weblink live, According to Moosvi, Mughal India had a per-capita income, in terms of wheat, 1.24% higher in the late 16th century than British India did in the early 20th century.{{sfn|Moosvi|2015|p=432}} This income, however, would have to be revised downwards if manufactured goods, like clothing, would be considered. Compared to food per capita, expenditure on clothing was much smaller though, so relative income between 1595 and 1596 should be comparable to 1901–1910.{{sfn|Moosvi|2015|p=450}} However, in a system where wealth was hoarded by elites, wages were depressed for manual labour. In Mughal India, there was a generally tolerant attitude towards manual labourers, with some religious cults in northern India proudly asserting a high status for manual labour. While slavery also existed, it was limited largely to household servants.JOURNAL, Moosvi, Shireen, December 2011, The World of Labour in Mughal India (c. 1500–1750), International Review of Social History, 56, S19, 245–261, 10.1017/S0020859011000526, free,AgricultureIndian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire. A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley, and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo and opium. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators began to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas, maize and tobacco.The Mughal administration emphasised agrarian reform, which began under the non-Mughal emperor Sher Shah Suri, the work of which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organised hierarchically based on merit, with promotions based on performance.BOOK, Pagaza, Ignacio, Winning the Needed Change: Saving Our Planet Earth, Argyriades, Demetrios, IOS Press, 2009, 978-1-58603-958-5, 129, The Mughal government funded the building of irrigation systems across the empire, which produced much higher crop yields and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production.A major Mughal reform introduced by Akbar was a new land revenue system called zabt. He replaced the tribute system, previously common in India and used by Tokugawa Japan at the time, with a monetary tax system based on a uniform currency. The revenue system was biased in favour of higher value cash crops such as cotton, indigo, sugar cane, tree crops, and opium, providing state incentives to grow cash crops, in addition to rising market demand. Under the zabt system, the Mughals also conducted extensive cadastral surveying to assess the area of land under plough cultivation, with the Mughal state encouraging greater land cultivation by offering tax-free periods to those who brought new land under cultivation. The expansion of agriculture and cultivation continued under later Mughal emperors including Aurangzeb, whose 1665 firman edict stated: "the entire elevated attention and desires of the Emperor are devoted to the increase in the population and cultivation of the Empire and the welfare of the whole peasantry and the entire people."BOOK, Ludden, David,weblink An Agrarian History of South Asia, Cambridge University Press, 1999, 978-0-521-36424-9, 96, 29 April 2019, 22 September 2023,weblink live, Mughal agriculture was in some ways advanced compared to European agriculture at the time, exemplified by the common use of the seed drill among Indian peasants before its adoption in Europe.BOOK, Irfan Habib,weblink The Cambridge Economic History of India, Dharma Kumar, Tapan Raychaudhuri, Cambridge University Press, 1987, 1, 214, Irfan Habib, Dharma Kumar, Tapan Raychaudhuri, 5 August 2017, 4 August 2017,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20170804231000weblink">weblink live, While the average peasant across the world was only skilled in growing very few crops, the average Indian peasant was skilled in growing a wide variety of food and non-food crops, increasing their productivity.BOOK, Irfan Habib,weblink The Cambridge Economic History of India, Dharma Kumar, Tapan Raychaudhuri, Cambridge University Press, 1987, 1, 217, Irfan Habib, Dharma Kumar, Tapan Raychaudhuri, 5 August 2017, 4 August 2017,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20170804231000weblink">weblink live, Indian peasants were also quick to adapt to profitable new crops, such as maize and tobacco from the New World being rapidly adopted and widely cultivated across Mughal India between 1600 and 1650. Bengali farmers rapidly learned techniques of mulberry cultivation and sericulture, establishing Bengal Subah as a major silk-producing region of the world. Sugar mills appeared in India shortly before the Mughal era. Evidence for the use of a draw bar for sugar-milling appears at Delhi in 1540, but may also date back earlier, and was mainly used in the northern Indian subcontinent. Geared sugar rolling mills first appeared in Mughal India, using the principle of rollers as well as worm gearing, by the 17th century.Irfan Habib (2011), Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500, p. 53 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922034936weblink |date=22 September 2023 }}, Pearson EducationAccording to economic historian Immanuel Wallerstein, citing evidence from Irfan Habib, Percival Spear, and Ashok Desai, per-capita agricultural output and standards of consumption in 17th-century Mughal India were probably higher than in 17th-century Europe and certainly higher than early 20th-century British India.BOOK, Suneja, Vivek,weblink Understanding Business: A Multidimensional Approach to the Market Economy, Psychology Press, 2000, 978-0-415-23857-1, 13, 9 August 2017, 22 September 2023,weblink live, The increased agricultural productivity led to lower food prices. In turn, this benefited the Indian textile industry. Compared to Britain, the price of grain was about one-half in South India and one-third in Bengal, in terms of silver coinage. This resulted in lower silver coin prices for Indian textiles, giving them a price advantage in global markets.{{Citation |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA38 |pages=39–45 |year=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0 |given=Prasannan |surname=Parthasarathi |access-date=9 August 2017 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404212704weblink |url-status=live }}Industrial manufacturingUp until 1750, India produced about 25% of the world's industrial output. Manufactured goods and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world. Key industries included textiles, shipbuilding, and steel. Processed products included cotton textiles, yarns, thread, silk, jute products, metalware, and foods such as sugar, oils and butter. The growth of manufacturing industries in the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal era in the 17th–18th centuries has been referred to as a form of proto-industrialization, similar to 18th-century Western Europe before the Industrial Revolution.BOOK, Roy, Tirthankar, The Ashgate Companion to the History of Textile Workers, 1650–2000, Ashgate Publishing, 2010, 978-0-7546-6428-4, Lex Heerma van Voss, 255, The Long Globalization and Textile Producers in India, Tirthankar Roy, Els Hiemstra-Kuperus, Elise van Nederveen Meerkerk,weblink 15 August 2017, 2 July 2023,weblink live, In early modern Europe, there was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo, silks, and saltpetre (for use in munitions). European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, Mughal India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia, and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia.Om Prakash, "Empire, Mughal {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118051038weblink |date=18 November 2022 }}", History of World Trade Since 1450, edited by John J. McCusker, vol. 1, Macmillan Reference US, 2006, pp. 237–240, World History in Context. Retrieved 3 August 2017 In contrast, there was very little demand for European goods in Mughal India, which was largely self-sufficient, thus Europeans had very little to offer, except for some woollens, unprocessed metals and a few luxury items. The trade imbalance caused Europeans to export large quantities of gold and silver to Mughal India to pay for South Asian imports. Indian goods, especially those from Bengal, were also exported in large quantities to other Asian markets, such as Indonesia and Japan.Textile industry{{See also|Muslin trade in Bengal|Mughal clothing}}(File:Old Mughal Courtier.png|thumb|Miniature painting – Portrait of an Old Mughal Courtier Wearing Muslin)(File:Renaldis muslin woman.jpg|thumb|Muslim Lady Reclining or An Indian Girl with a Hookah, painted in Dacca, 18th century)The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was textile manufacturing, particularly cotton textile manufacturing, which included the production of piece goods, calicos, and muslins, available unbleached and in a variety of colours. The cotton textile industry was responsible for a large part of the empire's international trade. India had a 25% share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century.Angus Maddison (1995), Monitoring the World Economy, 1820–1992, OECD, p. 30 Indian cotton textiles were the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century, consumed across the world from the Americas to Japan.{{Citation |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |page=2 |year=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0 |given=Prasannan |surname=Parthasarathi}} By the early 18th century, Mughal Indian textiles were clothing people across the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Europe, the Americas, Africa, and the Middle East. The most important centre of cotton production was the Bengal province, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka.Richard Maxwell Eaton (1996), The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760, p. 202 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404212612weblink |date=4 April 2023 }}, University of California PressBengal accounted for more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks imported by the Dutch from Asia, Bengali silk and cotton textiles were exported in large quantities to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan,{{rp|202}} and Bengali muslin textiles from Dhaka were sold in Central Asia, where they were known as "Dhaka textiles". Indian textiles dominated the Indian Ocean trade for centuries, were sold in the Atlantic Ocean trade, and had a 38% share of the West African trade in the early 18th century, while Indian calicos were a major force in Europe, and Indian textiles accounted for 20% of total English trade with Southern Europe in the early 18th century.The worm gear roller cotton gin, which was invented in India during the early Delhi Sultanate era of the 13th–14th centuries, came into use in the Mughal Empire sometime around the 16th century, and is still used in India through to the present day.BOOK, Lakwete, Angela,weblink Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003, 978-0-8018-7394-2, Baltimore, 1–6, Lakwete, 3 August 2017, 22 September 2023,weblink live, Another innovation, the incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin, first appeared in India sometime during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire.Irfan Habib (2011), Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500, pp. 53–54 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922034936weblink |date=22 September 2023 }}, Pearson Education The production of cotton, which may have largely been spun in the villages and then taken to towns in the form of yarn to be woven into cloth textiles, was advanced by the diffusion of the spinning wheel across India shortly before the Mughal era, lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton. The diffusion of the spinning wheel and the incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era.Irfan Habib (2011), Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500, p. 54 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922035433weblink |date=22 September 2023 }}, Pearson Education
Once, the Mughal emperor Akbar asked his courtiers, which was the most beautiful flower. Some said rose, from whose petals were distilled the precious ittar, others, the lotus, glory of every Indian village. But Birbal said, "The cotton boll". There was a scornful laughter and Akbar asked for an explanation. Birbal said, "Your Majesty, from the cotton boll, comes the fine fabric prized by merchants across the seas that has made your empire famous throughout the world. The perfume of your fame far exceeds the scent of roses and jasmine. That is why I say the cotton boll is the most beautiful flower.BOOK, دكتور Ù…Øمد نصر,weblink Fashion And Designing Under The Mughals Akbar To Aurangzeb. A Historical Perspective, English,
Bengal Subah{{See also|Muslin trade in Bengal}}File:Boro Katra 4 by Ashif Siddique.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the Great Caravanserai in DhakaDhakaThe Bengal Subah province was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by the Mughals in 1590 until the British East India Company seized control in 1757.JOURNAL, Roy, Tirthankar, Tirthankar Roy, November 2011, Where is Bengal? Situating an Indian Region in the Early Modern World Economy, Past & Present, 213, 1, 115–146, 10.1093/pastj/gtr009, Historian C. A. Bayly wrote that it was probably the Mughal Empire's wealthiest province.BOOK, Bayly, C. A.,weblink Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire, Cambridge University Press, 1988, 978-0-521-38650-0, The New Cambridge History of India, II.1, 51, Christopher Bayly, 8 February 2023, 8 February 2023,weblink live, Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks, and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks. From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia and Japan.Akbar played a key role in establishing Bengal as a leading economic centre, as he began transforming many of the jungles there into farms. As soon as he conquered the region, he brought tools and men to clear jungles to expand cultivation and brought Sufis to open the jungles to farming. Bengal was later described as the Paradise of Nations by Mughal emperors.NEWS, The paradise of nations,weblink Dhaka Tribune, 30 April 2016, 3 June 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160603070532weblink">weblink live, The Mughals introduced agrarian reforms, including the modern Bengali calendar.NEWS, Daniyal, Shoaib, Bengali New Year: how Akbar invented the modern Bengali calendar, Scroll.in,weblink 30 April 2016, 26 April 2022,weblink live, The calendar played a vital role in developing and organising harvests, tax collection and Bengali culture in general, including the New Year and Autumn festivals.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}} The province was a leading producer of grains, salt, fruits, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments.BOOK, Nanda, J. N.,weblink Bengal: The Unique State, Concept Publishing Company, 2005, 10, 978-81-8069-149-2, 5 May 2016, 22 September 2023,weblink live, After Akbar, there are notable contributive factor during the era of Aurangzeb, as Siddiqui M. Azizuddin Hussein from Jamia Millia Islamia and Maulana Azad National Urdu University, has viewed that aside from religious and legal context, Fatawa 'Alamgiri codex has provided direct contribution to the Proto-industrialization in Bengal Subah.BOOK, Hussein, Siddiqui M. Azizuddin, 2002, Structure of Politics Under Aurangzeb 1658-1707, Kanishka Publishers Distributors, Sambalpur University library, 158,weblink 978-8173914898, After 150 years of rule by Mughal viceroys, Bengal gained semi-independence as a dominion under the Nawab of Bengal in 1717. The Nawabs permitted European companies to set up trading posts across the region, including firms from Britain, France, the Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal and Austria. An Armenian community dominated banking and shipping in major cities and towns. The Europeans regarded Bengal as the richest place for trade. By the late 18th century, the British displaced the Mughal ruling class in Bengal.Shipbuilding industryMughal India had a large shipbuilding industry, which was also largely centred in the Bengal province. Economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates the shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.BOOK, Ray, Indrajit,weblink Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757–1857), Routledge, 2011, 978-1-136-82552-1, 174, He also assesses ship repairing as very advanced in Bengal.An important innovation in shipbuilding was the introduction of a flushed deck design in Bengal rice ships, resulting in hulls that were stronger and less prone to leak than the structurally weak hulls of traditional European ships built with a stepped deck design. The British East India Company later duplicated the flushed deck and hull designs of Bengal rice ships in the 1760s, leading to significant improvements in seaworthiness and navigation for European ships during the Industrial Revolution.WEB, Technological Dynamism in a Stagnant Sector: Safety at Sea during the Early Industrial Revolution,weblink 3 August 2017, 11 December 2019,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20191211214530weblink">weblink live,Demographics{{See also|Demographics of India#History|l1=Demographics of India: History}}PopulationIndia's population growth accelerated under the Mughal Empire, with an unprecedented economic and demographic upsurge which boosted the Indian population by 60%BOOK, Colin McEvedy,weblink Atlas of World Population History, Richard Jones, 1978, Facts on File, New York, 184–185, Colin McEvedy, 7 August 2017, 12 November 2020,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20201112011124weblink">weblink live, to 253% in 200 years during 1500–1700.Angus Maddison (2001), (The World Economy: Historical Statistics|The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective), p. 236 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111170118weblink |date=11 November 2020 }}, OECD Development Centre The Indian population had a faster growth during the Mughal era than at any known point in Indian history before the Mughal era. By the time of Aurangzeb's reign, there were a total of 455,698 villages in the Mughal Empire.The following table gives population estimates for the Mughal Empire, compared to the total population of South Asia including the regions of modern India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, and compared to the world population:{| class="wikitable sortable" | |||
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| {{formatnum:115000000}}IRFAN HABIB >URL=HTTP://WWW.HKRDB.KAR.NIC.IN/DOCUMENTS/DOWNLOADS/GOOD%20READS/THE%20CAMBRIDGE%20ECONOMIC%20HISTORY%20OF%20INDIA,%20VOLUME%201.PDF#PAGE=186 | LAST2=DHARMA KUMAR | PUBLISHER=CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS | VOLUME=1 | AUTHOR-LINK=IRFAN HABIB | AUTHOR-LINK3=TAPAN RAYCHAUDHURI | ARCHIVE-DATE=4 AUGUST 2017 | URL-STATUS=LIVE, | {{formatnum:130000000}} | 89 | {{formatnum:579000000}}Jean-Noël Biraben, 1980, "An Essay Concerning Mankind's Evolution", Population, Selected Papers, Vol. 4, pp. 1–13 | 20 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| {{formatnum:158400000}}JóZSEF BöRöCZ >URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=D0SPAGAAQBAJ&PG=PA21 | YEAR=2009 | ROUTLEDGE >ISBN=978-1-135-25580-0 | AUTHOR-LINK=JóZSEF BöRöCZ, 26 June 2017, | {{formatnum:160000000}} | 99 | {{formatnum:679000000}} | 23 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Urbanization
According to Irfan Habib Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time, with 15% of its population living in urban centres.BOOK, Eraly, Abraham,weblink The Mughal World: Life in India's Last Golden Age, Penguin Books India, 2007, 978-0-14-310262-5, 5–, Abraham Eraly, This was higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of British India in the 19th century; the level of urbanization in Europe did not reach 15% until the 19th century.BOOK, Malanima, Paolo,weblink Pre-Modern European Economy: One Thousand Years (10th–19th Centuries), Brill Publishers, 2009, 978-90-04-17822-9, 244, Paolo Malanima, Under Akbar's reign in 1600, the Mughal Empire's urban population was up to 17 million people, 15% of the empire's total population. This was larger than the entire urban population in Europe at the time, and even a century later in 1700, the urban population of England, Scotland and Wales did not exceed 13% of its total population, while British India had an urban population that was under 13% of its total population in 1800 and 9% in 1881, a decline from the earlier Mughal era.BOOK, Irfan Habib,weblink The Cambridge Economic History of India, Dharma Kumar, Tapan Raychaudhuri, Cambridge University Press, 1987, 1, 165, Irfan Habib, Dharma Kumar, Tapan Raychaudhuri, 4 August 2017, 4 August 2017,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20170804231000weblink">weblink live, By 1700, Mughal India had an urban population of 23 million people, larger than British India's urban population of 22.3 million in 1871.WEB, Broadberry, Stephen, Gupta, Bishnupriya, 2010, Indian GDP before 1870: Some preliminary estimates and a comparison with Britain,weblink dead,weblink 11 November 2020, 12 October 2015, Warwick University, 23, Those estimates were criticised by Tim Dyson, who consider them exaggerations. According to Dyson urbanization of the Mughal empire was less than 9%.BOOK, Dyson, Tim, A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, 2018, 63–65, The historian Nizamuddin Ahmad (1551–1621) reported that, under Akbar's reign, there were 120 large cities and 3200 townships. A number of cities in India had a population between a quarter-million and half-million people, with larger cities including Agra (in Agra Subah) with up to 800,000 people, Lahore (in Lahore Subah) with up to 700,000 people,BOOK, Irfan Habib,weblink The Cambridge Economic History of India, Dharma Kumar, Tapan Raychaudhuri, Cambridge University Press, 1987, 1, 171, Irfan Habib, Dharma Kumar, Tapan Raychaudhuri, 4 August 2017, 4 August 2017,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20170804231000weblink">weblink live, Dhaka (in Bengal Subah) with over 1 million people,JOURNAL, Rob, Md. Abdur, Asaduzzaman, Md., December 1997, Historical Growth of Urbanization in Dhaka City, Social Science Review, Dhaka University, 14, 2, 126, and Delhi (in Delhi Subah) with over 600,000 people.BOOK, Moosvi, Shireen,weblink People, Taxation, and Trade in Mughal India, Oxford University Press, 2008, 978-0-19-569315-7, 131, Cities acted as markets for the sale of goods, and provided homes for a variety of merchants, traders, shopkeepers, artisans, moneylenders, weavers, craftspeople, officials, and religious figures. However, several cities were military and political centres, rather than manufacturing or commerce centres.JOURNAL, Chaudhuri, K. N., 2008, Some Reflections on the Town and Country in Mughal India, Modern Asian Studies, 12, 1, 77–96, 10.1017/S0026749X00008155, 146558617, 0026-749X,Culture
{{See also|Indo-Persian culture||}}File:Mushafi-ghulam-hamdani.png|thumb|250px|Ghulam Hamdani MushafiGhulam Hamdani MushafiThe Mughal Empire was definitive in the early-modern and modern periods of South Asian history, with its legacy in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan seen in cultural contributions such as:(File:Mir Taqi Mir 1786.jpg|thumb|Mir Taqi Mir, an Urdu poet of the 18th century Mughal Empire)(File:Taj mahal (1870s).jpg|thumb|The Taj Mahal in the 1870s)- Centralised imperial rule that consolidated the smaller polities of South Asia.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Mughal Empire – MSN Encarta,weblink dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20091028022520weblink">weblink 28 October 2009,
- The amalgamation of Persian art and literature with Indian art.WEB, Indo-Persian Literature Conference: SOAS: North Indian Literary Culture (1450–1650),weblink 28 November 2012, SOAS, 23 September 2009,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20090923222924weblink">weblink dead,
- The development of Mughlai cuisine, an amalgamation of South Asian, Iranian and Central Asian culinary styles.
- The development of Mughal clothing, jewellery and fashion, utilizing richly decorated fabrics such as muslin, silk, brocade and velvet.
- The Persian and Arabic language mixed with Hindi grammar, thus the development of Urdu.WEB, Islam: Mughal Empire (1500s, 1600s),weblink 10 June 2018, Religions, BBC, 13 August 2018,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20180813212912weblink">weblink live,
- The introduction of sophisticated Iranian-style waterworks and horticulture through Mughal gardening.JOURNAL, Fatma, Sadaf, 2012, Waterworks in Mughal Gardens, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 73, 1268–1278, 44156328,
- The introduction of Turkish baths into the Indian subcontinent.
- The evolution and refinement of Mughal and Indian architecture and in turn, the development of later Rajput and Sikh palatial architecture. A famous Mughal landmark is the Taj Mahal.
- The development of the Pehlwani style of Indian wrestling, a combination of Indian malla-yuddha and Persian varzesh-e bastani.JOURNAL, Alter, Joseph S., May 1992, The sannyasi and the Indian Wrestler: The Anatomy of a Relationship, American Ethnologist, 19, 2, 317–336, 10.1525/ae.1992.19.2.02a00070, 0094-0496, BOOK, Alter, Joseph S.,weblink The Wrestler's Body: Identity and Ideology in North India, University of California Press, 1992, 978-0-520-07697-6, 2, Wrestling in modern India is a synthesis of two different traditions: the Persian form of the art brought into South Asia by the Moguls, and an indigenous Hindu form., Joseph Alter, limited,
- The construction of Maktab schools, where youth were taught the Quran and Islamic law such as the Fatawa 'Alamgiri in their indigenous languages.
- The development of Hindustani classical music,NEWS, 8 February 2000, Mughal influence on Indian music, The Hindu,weblink 5 April 2019, 26 December 2019,weblink live, and instruments such as the sitar.{{Citation |last=Swarn Lata |title=The Journey of the Sitar in Indian Classical Music |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=92QXf8B2VXIC&pg=PA24 |page=24 |year=2013 |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=978-1-4759-4707-6 |access-date=16 August 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922035524weblink |url-status=live }}{{self-published inline|date=September 2023}}
Architecture
The Mughals made a major contribution to the Indian subcontinent with the development of their distinctive architectural style. This style was derived from earlier Indo-Islamic architecture as well as from Iranian and Central Asian architecture (particularly Timurid architecture), while incorporating further influences from Hindu architecture.BOOK, Petersen, Andrew, Dictionary of Islamic architecture, Routledge, 1996, 9781134613663, 199–205, Mughals, BOOK, Asher, Catherine Blanshard,weblink Architecture of Mughal India, Cambridge University Press, 1992, 9780521267281, The New Cambridge History of India, Part I, 4, 1–2, 15–17, en, Mughal architecture is distinguished, among other things, by bulbous domes, ogive arches, carefully-composed and polished façades, and the use of hard red sandstone and marble as construction materials.BOOK,weblink The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture, Oxford University Press, 2009, 9780195309911, Bloom, Jonathan M., 1, 182, en, Architecture, Blair, Sheila S., Many monuments were built during the Mughal era by the Muslim emperors, especially Shah Jahan, including the Taj Mahal—a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage",WEB,weblink Taj Mahal, UNESCO World Heritage, Centre, UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 7 May 2020, 1 February 2018,weblink live, attracting 7–8 million unique visitors a year. The palaces, tombs, gardens and forts built by the dynasty stand today in Agra, Aurangabad, Delhi, Dhaka, Fatehpur Sikri, Jaipur, Lahore, Kabul, Sheikhupura, and many other cities of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh,BOOK, Ross Marlay, Patriots and Tyrants: Ten Asian Leaders, Clark D. Neher, 1999, Rowman & Littlefield, 978-0-8476-8442-7, 269, such as:File:1. লালবাগের কেলà§à¦²à¦¾.jpg|thumb|Lalbagh FortLalbagh Fort{| class="wikitable"|+!India!Pakistan!Bangladesh!Afghanistan- Taj Mahal in Agra, India
- Agra Fort in Agra, India
- Buland Darwaza in Agra, India
- Akbar's tomb in Sikandra, India
- Tomb of Mariam-uz-Zamani in Sikandra, India
- Humayun's Tomb in Delhi, India
- Jama Masjid in Delhi, India
- Red Fort in Delhi, India
- Sunder Nursery in Delhi, India
- Purana Qila in Delhi, India
- Sher Mandal in Delhi, India
- Pinjore Gardens in Pinjore, India
- Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar, India
- Nishat Bagh in Srinagar, India
- Chasma Shahi in Srinagar, India
- Pari Mahal in Srinagar, India
- Verinag Gardens in Srinagar, India
- Allahabad Fort in Prayagraj, India
- Shahi Bridge in Jaunpur, India
- Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad, India
- Kos Minar in Haryana, India
- Baoli Ghaus Ali Shah in Farrukhnagar, India
- Badshahi Masjid in Lahore, Pakistan
- Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, Pakistan
- Lahore Fort in Lahore, Pakistan
- Shahi Hammam in Lahore, Pakistan
- Wazir Khan Mosque in Lahore, Pakistan
- Tomb of Jahangir in Lahore, Pakistan
- Tomb of Anarkali in Lahore, Pakistan
- Tomb of Nur Jahan in Lahore, Pakistan
- Tomb of Asif Khan in Lahore, Pakistan
- Begum Shahi Mosque in Lahore, Pakistan
- Akbari Sarai in Lahore, Pakistan
- Hiran Minar in Sheikhpura, Pakistan
- Mahabat Khan Mosque in Peshawar, Pakistan
- Shahi Eid Gah Mosque in Multan, Pakistan
- Mausoleum of Masum Shah in Sukkur, Pakistan
- Losar Baoli in Taxila, Pakistan
- Makli Necropolis in Thatta, Pakistan
- Shah Jahan Mosque in Thatta, Pakistan
- Mughal Eidgah in Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Lalbagh Fort in Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Shahi Eidgah in Sylhet, Bangladesh
- Mughal Tahakhana in Chapai Nawabganj, Bangladesh
- Sat Gambuj Mosque in Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Masjid-e-Siraj ud-Daulah in Chittagong, Bangladesh
- Allakuri Masjid in Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Chawkbazar Shahi Masjid in Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Laldighi Masjid in Rangpur, Bangladesh
- Khan Mohammad Mridha Masjid in Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Wali Khan Masjid in Chittagong, Bangladesh
- Shaista Khan Masjid, in Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Musa Khan Masjid, in Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Shahbaz Khan Masjid, in Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Kartalab Khan Masjid in Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Azimpur Masjid in Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Goaldi Masjid in Sonargaon, Bangladesh
- Atia Masjid in Tangail, Bangladesh
- Arifail Masjid in Brahmanbaria, Bangladesh
- Bazra Shahi Masjid in Noakhali, Bangladesh
- Masjid Kur in Khulna, Bangladesh
- Nayabad Masjid in Dinajpur, Bangladesh
- Ghayebi Dighi Masjid in Sylhet, Bangladesh
- Hussaini Dalan in Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Bara Katra in Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Hajiganj Fort in Narayanganj, Bangladesh
- Idrakpur Fort in Munshiganj, Bangladesh
- Choto Katra in Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Sonakanda Fort in Narayanganj, Bangladesh
- Bagh-e-Babur in Kabul, Afghanistan
- Shahjahani Mosque in Kabul, Afghanistan
Art and literature
(File:Finial in the Form of a Parrot, Mughal empire.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|Finial in the form of a parrot, Mughal empire, 17th century.)The Mughal artistic tradition, mainly expressed in painted miniatures, as well as small luxury objects, was eclectic, borrowing from Iranian, Indian, Chinese and Renaissance European stylistic and thematic elements.Crill, Rosemary, and Jariwala, Kapil. The Indian Portrait, 1560–1860, pp. 23–27, National Portrait Gallery, London, 2010, {{ISBN|978-1855144095}}; Beach, Milo Cleveland (1987), Early Mughal painting, Harvard University Press, pp. 33–37, {{ISBN|978-0-674-22185-7}}, google books {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164801weblink |date=26 March 2023 }} Mughal emperors often took in Iranian bookbinders, illustrators, painters and calligraphers from the Safavid court due to the commonalities of their Timurid styles, and due to the Mughal affinity for Iranian art and calligraphy.JOURNAL, Soucek, Priscilla, 1987, Persian Artists in Mughal India: Influences and Transformations, Muqarnas, 4, 166–181, 10.2307/1523102, 1523102, Miniatures commissioned by the Mughal emperors initially focused on large projects illustrating books with eventful historical scenes and court life, but later included more single images for albums, with portraits and animal paintings displaying a profound appreciation for the serenity and beauty of the natural world.JOURNAL, Blunt, Wilfrid, 1948, The Mughal Painters of Natural History, The Burlington Magazine, 90, 539, 48–50, 869792, For example, Emperor Jahangir commissioned brilliant artists such as Ustad Mansur to realistically portray unusual flora and fauna throughout the empire.The literary works Akbar and Jahangir ordered to be illustrated ranged from epics like the Razmnama (a Persian translation of the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata) to historical memoirs or biographies of the dynasty such as the Baburnama and Akbarnama, and Tuzk-e-Jahangiri. Richly finished albums (muraqqa) decorated with calligraphy and artistic scenes were mounted onto pages with decorative borders and then bound with covers of stamped and gilded or painted and lacquered leather.WEB, Sardar, Marika, October 2003, The Art of the Mughals After 1600,weblinkweblink 4 February 2019, The MET, Aurangzeb (1658–1707) was never an enthusiastic patron of painting, largely for religious reasons, and took a turn away from the pomp and ceremonial of the court around 1668, after which he probably commissioned no more paintings.Losty, J. P. Roy, Malini (eds), Mughal India: Art, Culture and Empire, 2013, pp. 147, 149, British Library, {{ISBN|978-0712358705}}File:India, Mughal, early 17th century - An Illuminated Folio from the Royal Manuscript of the Farhang-i Jahangiri ( - 2013.318.a - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|thumb|right|upright|Folio from Farhang-i-JahangiriFarhang-i-JahangiriLanguage
According to Qazvini, by the time of Shah Jahan, the emperor was only familiar with a few Turki words and showed little interest in the study of the language as a child.BOOK,weblink History Of Shahjahan Of Dihli 1932, Banarsi Prasad Saksena, Indian Press Limited, 1932, Though the Mughals were of Turko-Mongol origin, their reign enacted the revival and height of the Persian language in the Indian subcontinent, and by the end of the 16th-century Turki (Chagatai) was understood by relatively few at court.{{sfn|Seyller|2011|p=329}} Accompanied by literary patronage was the institutionalisation of Persian as an official and courtly language; this led to Persian reaching nearly the status of a first language for many inhabitants of Mughal India.{{Citation|title=2. The Culture and Politics of Persian in Precolonial Hindustan|year=2019|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/9780520926738-007|work=Literary Cultures in History|pages=158–167|publisher=University of California Press|doi=10.1525/9780520926738-007|isbn=978-0-520-92673-8|s2cid=226770775|access-date=2021-07-26|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922035426weblink|url-status=live}}{{Citation|last1=Abidi|first1=S. A. H.|title=Persian in South Asia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511619069.007|work=Language in South Asia|pages=105|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-511-61906-9|access-date=2021-07-26|last2=Gargesh|first2=Ravinder|editor1-first=Braj B|editor1-last=Kachru|editor2-first=Yamuna|editor2-last=Kachru|editor3-first=S. N|editor3-last=Sridhar|year=2008|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511619069.007|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922035429weblink|url-status=live}} Muzaffar Alam argues that the Mughals used Persian purposefully as the vehicle of an overarching Indo-Persian political culture, to unite their diverse empire.BOOK, Alam, Muzaffar,weblink The languages of political Islam : India 1200–1800, 2004, University of Chicago Press, 0-226-01100-3, 134, 144, 469379391, Persian had a profound impact on the languages of South Asia; one such language, today known as Urdu, developed in the imperial capital of Delhi in the late Mughal era. It began to be used as a literary language in the Mughal court from the reign of Shah Alam II, who described it as the language of his dastans (prose romances) and replaced Persian as the informal language of the Muslim elite.BOOK, Faruqi, Shamsur Rahman, Shamsur Rahman Faruqi, Pollock, Sheldon, 2003, A Long History of Urdu Literary Culture, Part 1: Naming and Placing a Literary Culture, Literary Cultures in History, University of California Press, 807–808, 811, 10.1525/9780520926738-019, 978-0-520-22821-4, 226765648, WEB, Matthews, David, Urdu,weblink Encyclopaedia Iranica, 26 July 2021, 29 April 2011,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20110429160516weblink">weblink live, According to Mir Taqi Mir, "Urdu was the language of Hindustan by the authority of the King."BOOK,weblink Delhi:Pages From a Forgotten History, Arthur Dudney, 2015, Hay House, 978-93-84544-31-7, 19 May 2023, 9 June 2023,weblink live, BOOK, Life, Times and Poetry of Mir,weblink S. R. Sharma ·, 4, 2014, Partridge Publishing, 978-1-4828-1478-1, 19 May 2023, 16 July 2023,weblink live,Military
{{Further|Army of the Mughal Empire|Mughal weapons|Mughal artillery}}Gunpowder warfare
File:Officer of the Mughal Army, c.1585 (colour litho).jpg|thumb|Mughal matchlockmatchlock{{See also|Gunpowder empires|History of gunpowder#India and the Mughal Empire|l2=History of gunpowder: India and the Mughal Empire}}Mughal India was one of the three Islamic gunpowder empires, along with the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia.BOOK, Streusand, Douglas E., Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals,weblink registration, Westview Press, 2011, 978-0-8133-1359-7, Philadelphia, WEB, Charles T. Evans, The Gunpowder Empires,weblink 28 December 2010, Northern Virginia Community College, 26 May 2011,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20110526092248weblink">weblink live, By the time he was invited by Lodi governor of Lahore, Daulat Khan, to support his rebellion against Lodi Sultan Ibrahim Khan, Babur was familiar with gunpowder firearms and field artillery, and a method for deploying them. Babur had employed Ottoman expert Ustad Ali Quli, who showed Babur the standard Ottoman formation—artillery and firearm-equipped infantry protected by wagons in the centre and the mounted archers on both wings. Babur used this formation at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, where the Afghan and Rajput forces loyal to the Delhi Sultanate, though superior in numbers but without the gunpowder weapons, were defeated. The decisive victory of the Timurid forces is one reason opponents rarely met Mughal princes in pitched battles throughout the empire's history.BOOK, Streusand, Douglas E., Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals,weblink registration, Westview Press, 2011, 978-0-8133-1359-7, Philadelphia, 255, In India, guns made of bronze were recovered from Calicut (1504) and Diu (1533).BOOK, Partington, James Riddick, A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder,weblink 226, 1999, First published 1960, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 978-0-8018-5954-0, J. R. Partington, Fathullah Shirazi ({{Circa|1582}}), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar, developed an early multi-gun shot. As opposed to the polybolos and repeating crossbows used earlier in ancient Greece and China, respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder. It may be considered a version of a volley gun.JOURNAL, Bag, A.K., 2005, Fathullah Shirazi: Cannon, Multi-barrel Gun and Yarghu, Indian Journal of History of Science, 40, 3, 431–436, 0019-5235, File:The Padshahnama, imperial court guards and nobles.jpg|thumb|Mughal musketeermusketeerBy the 17th century, Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms; large guns in particular, became visible in Tanjore, Dacca, Bijapur and Murshidabad.BOOK, Partington, James Riddick, A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder,weblink 225, 1999, First published 1960, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 978-0-8018-5954-0,Rocketry and explosives
In the sixteenth century, Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as bans, particularly against war elephants, during the Battle of Sanbal.WEB, MughalistanSipahi, 19 June 2010, Islamic Mughal Empire: War Elephants Part 3,weblinkweblink 2021-12-21, live, 28 November 2012, YouTube, {{cbignore}} In 1657, the Mughal Army used rockets during the Siege of Bidar.Ghulam Yazdani, Bidar, Its History and Monuments, (Motilal Banarsidass, 1995), 15. Prince Aurangzeb's forces discharged rockets and grenades while scaling the walls. Sidi Marjan was mortally wounded when a rocket struck his large gunpowder depot, and after twenty-seven days of hard fighting, Bidar was captured by the Mughals.In A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder, James Riddick Partington described Indian rockets and explosive mines:The Indian war rockets ... were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe. They had bam-boo rods, a rocket body lashed to the rod and iron points. They were directed at the target and fired by lighting the fuse, but the trajectory was rather erratic. The use of mines and counter-mines with explosive charges of gunpowder is mentioned for the times of Akbar and Jahangir.Science
A new curriculum for the madrasas which stressed the importance of uloom-i-muqalat (Rational Sciences) and introduced new subjects such as geometry, medicine, philosophy, and mathematics. The new curriculum produced a series of eminent scholars, engineers and architects.Khan, Nasir Raza. Art and Architectural Traditions of India and Iran: Commonality and Diversity. Routledge, 2022. BOOK, Nasir Raza Khan, Art and Architectural Traditions of India and Iran Commonality and Diversity, 2022, Routledge India, 9781032134819,weblink 20 March 2024, ... Shirazi and others revised the syllabi of the madrasas. In the new syllabi ...,Astronomy
{{See also|Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world|Indian astronomy}}File:Gyarah Siddi.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Remains of Mughal observatory Gyarah Sidi near Mehtab BaghMehtab BaghWhile there appears to have been little concern for theoretical astronomy, Mughal astronomers made advances in observational astronomy and produced some Zij treatises. Humayun built a personal observatory near Delhi. According to Sulaiman Nadvi, Jahangir and Shah Jahan intended to build observatories too but were unable to do so. The astronomical instruments and observational techniques used at the Mughal observatories were mainly derived from Islamic astronomy.{{Citation |last=Sharma |first=Virendra Nath |title=Sawai Jai Singh and His Astronomy |pages=8–9 |year=1995 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-1256-7}}{{Citation |last=Baber |first=Zaheer |title=The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India |pages=82–89 |year=1996 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-2919-8}} In the 17th century, the Mughal Empire saw a synthesis between Islamic and Hindu astronomy, where Islamic observational instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques.(File:Mughal Celestial Globe.jpg|thumb|200px|Celestial Globe made by Mughals)During the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Hindu king Jai Singh II of Amber continued the work of Mughal astronomy. In the early 18th century, he built several large observatories called Yantra Mandirs, to rival Ulugh Beg's Samarkand observatory, and to improve on the earlier Hindu computations in the Siddhantas and Islamic observations in Zij-i-Sultani. The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy, while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy.Chemistry
{{See also|Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world}}Sake Dean Mahomed had learned much of Mughal chemistry and understood the techniques used to produce various alkali and soaps to produce shampoo. He was also a notable writer who described the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and the cities of Allahabad and Delhi in rich detail and also made note of the glories of the Mughal Empire.In Britain, Sake Dean Mahomed was appointed as shampooing surgeon to both Kings George IV and William IV.JOURNAL, Teltscher, Kate, 2000, The Shampooing Surgeon and the Persian Prince: Two Indians in Early Nineteenth-century Britain, Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies, 2, 3, 409–423, 10.1080/13698010020019226, 161906676, 1469-929X,Metallurgy
{{See also|History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent|Mughal Karkhanas}}The society within Mughal empire operated the Karkhanas, which functioned as workshops for craftsmen. These Karkhanas were producing arms, ammunition, and also various items for the court and emperor's need such as clothes, shawls, turbans, jewelry, gold and silverware, perfumes, medicines, carpets, beddings, tents, and for the imperial stable-harnesses for the horses in irons, copper and other metals.BOOK, Verma, Tripta,weblink Karkhanas Under the Mughals, from Akbar to Aurangzeb: A Study in Economic Development, 1994, Pragati Publications, 978-81-7307-021-1, 18, en, BOOK, Sharma, Sri Ram,weblink Mughal Government and Administration, 1951, Hind Kitabs, 61, en, JOURNAL, Sumit, An Eighteenth Century Survey of Jaipur "Chhapakhana" Based on Jaipur "Karkhanajat" Records, 2012,weblink Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 73, 421–430, 44156233, 2249-1937, Another aspects of remarkable invention in Mughal India is the lost-wax cast, hollow, seamless, celestial globe. It was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589–90 CE). Twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire. Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce hollow metal globes without any (wikt:seam|seams).Savage-Smith, Emilie (1985), Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DCA 17th-century celestial globe was also made by Diya’ ad-din Muhammad in Lahore, 1668 (now in Pakistan).WEB, Celestial globe,weblink 2020-10-15, National Museums Scotland, en, 14 June 2020,weblink live, It is now housed at the National Museum of Scotland.List of Mughal Emperors
{| style="width:100%;" class="wikitable"! style="width:8%;"| Portrait! style="width:12%;"| Titular Name! style="width:18%;"| Birth Name! style="width:9%;"| Birth! style="width:20%;"| Reign! style="width:13%;"| DeathSee also
- History of India
- Flags of the Mughal Empire
- List of Mongol states
- Mughal-Mongol genealogy
- Islam in South Asia
References
Footnotes
{{notelist}}Citations
{{reflist}}Sources
- BOOK, Conan, Michel,weblink Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity : Questions, Methods and Resources in a Multicultural Perspective, Dumbarton Oaks, 2007, 978-0-88402-329-6, 13 June 2019, 22 September 2023,weblink live,
- BOOK, Moosvi, Shireen,weblink The economy of the Mughal Empire, c. 1595: a statistical study, Oxford University Press, 2015, 978-0-19-908549-1, 2nd, First published 1987, 13 June 2019, 22 September 2023,weblink live,
- BOOK, Morier, James, The Monthly Magazine, R. Phillips, 1812, 34, A journey through Persia, Armenia and Asia Minor,weblink 19 October 2015, 22 September 2023,weblink live,
- BOOK, Rutherford, Alex,weblink Empire of the Moghul: Brothers at War: Brothers at War, Headline, 2010, 978-0-7553-8326-9, 10 June 2019, 22 September 2023,weblink live,
- JOURNAL, A Mughal Manuscript of the "Diwan" of Nawa'i, John, Seyller, Artibus Asiae, 71, 2011, 2, 325–334,
Further reading
- Alam, Muzaffar. Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India: Awadh & the Punjab, 1707–48 (1988)
- {{Citation |last=Ali |first=M. Athar |title=The Passing of Empire: The Mughal Case |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=385–396 |year=1975 |doi=10.1017/s0026749x00005825 |jstor=311728|s2cid=143861682 }}, on the causes of its collapse
- {{Citation |last1=Asher |first1=C.B. |title=India Before Europe |year=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-51750-8 |last2=Talbot |first2=C}}
- Black, Jeremy. "The Mughals Strike Twice", History Today (April 2012) 624 pp. 22–26. full text online
- {{Citation |last=Blake |first=Stephen P. |title=The Patrimonial-Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals |date=November 1979 |journal=Journal of Asian Studies |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=77–94 |doi=10.2307/2053505 |jstor=2053505|s2cid=154527305 }}
- Dale, Stephen F. The Muslim Empires of the Ottomans, Safavids and Mughals (Cambridge U.P. 2009)
- BOOK, Dalrymple, William,weblink The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty : Delhi, 1857, Random House Digital, Inc., 2007, 978-0-307-26739-9,
- {{Citation |last=Faruqui |first=Munis D. |title=The Forgotten Prince: Mirza Hakim and the Formation of the Mughal Empire in India |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=487–523 |year=2005 |doi=10.1163/156852005774918813 |jstor=25165118}}, on Akbar and his brother
- BOOK, J.J.L. Gommans, Mughal Warfare Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500-1700, 2002, Taylor & Francis, 9781134552757,weblink 18 April 2024, En, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102093702weblink |date=2 January 2011 }}
- Gordon, S. The New Cambridge History of India, II, 4: The Marathas 1600–1818 (Cambridge, 1993).
- Habib, Irfan. Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps (1982).
- BOOK,weblink A History of Modern India, 1480–1950, 2004, Anthem Press, 978-1-84331-004-4, Markovits, Claude, 2nd, London, First published 1994 as Histoire de l'Inde Moderne, 19 October 2015, 22 September 2023,weblink live,
- {{Citation |last1=Metcalf |first1=B. |title=A Concise History of Modern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C |year=2006 |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-68225-1 |last2=Metcalf |first2=T.R. |author-link=Barbara Metcalf |author-link2=Thomas R. Metcalf |access-date=19 October 2015 |archive-date=2 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702122602weblink |url-status=live }}
- BOOK, Richards, John F.,weblink The Mughal Empire, Cambridge University Press, 1996, 978-0-521-56603-2, 19 October 2015, 1 February 2023,weblink live,
- BOOK, Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra,weblink The Mughul Empire, B.V. Bhavan, 1974,
- {{Citation |last=Richards |first=J.F. |title=Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy |date=April 1981 |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=285–308 |doi=10.1017/s0010417500013311 |jstor=178737|s2cid=154809724 }}
- {{Citation |last=Robb |first=P. |title=A History of India |year=2001 |publisher=London: Palgrave |isbn=978-0-333-69129-8}}
- Srivastava, Ashirbadi Lal. The Mughul Empire, 1526–1803 (1952) online.
- {{Citation |last=Stein |first=B. |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXdVS0SzQSAC |year=1998 |edition=1st |place=Oxford |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-0-631-20546-3 |author-link=Burton Stein }}
- {{Citation |last=Stein |first=B. |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC |year=2010 |editor-last=Arnold |editor-first=D. |edition=2nd |place=Oxford |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6 |author-link=Burton Stein |access-date=19 October 2015 |archive-date=12 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230712062730weblink |url-status=live }}
Culture
- Berinstain, V. Mughal India: Splendour of the Peacock Throne (London, 1998).
- Busch, Allison. Poetry of Kings: The Classical Hindi Literature of Mughal India (2011) excerpt and text search {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529164539weblink |date=29 May 2016 }}
- JOURNAL, Parodi, Laura E., Kabul, a Forgotten Mughal Capital: Gardens, City, and Court at the Turn of the Sixteenth Century, Muqarnas Online, 2021, 38, 1, 113–153, 10.1163/22118993-00381P05, 245040517,
- BOOK, Diana Preston,weblink Taj Mahal: Passion and Genius at the Heart of the Moghul Empire, Michael Preston, 2007, Walker & Company, 978-0-8027-1673-6, registration,
- Schimmel, Annemarie. The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture (Reaktion 2006)
- BOOK, Welch, S.C.,weblink The Emperors' album: images of Mughal India, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1987, 978-0-87099-499-9, New York, etal, 9 October 2013, 27 September 2018,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20180927100257weblink">weblink live,
Society and economy
- {{Citation |last=Chaudhuri |first=K.N. |title=Some Reflections on the Town and Country in Mughal India |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=77–96 |year=1978 |doi=10.1017/s0026749x00008155 |jstor=311823|s2cid=146558617 }}
- Habib, Irfan. Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps (1982).
- Habib, Irfan. Agrarian System of Mughal India (1963, revised edition 1999).
- BOOK, J. C. Sharman, Empires of the Weak: The Real Story of European Expansion and the Creation of the New World Order, 2019, Princeton University Press, 978-0691182797, En,
- {{Citation |last=Heesterman |first=J.C. |title=The Social Dynamics of the Mughal Empire: A Brief Introduction |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=292–297 |year=2004 |doi=10.1163/1568520041974729 |jstor=25165051}}
- {{Citation |last=Khan |first=Iqtidar Alam |title=The Middle Classes in the Mughal Empire |journal=Social Scientist |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=28–49 |year=1976 |doi=10.2307/3516601 |jstor=3516601}}
- JOURNAL, M. Athar Ali, The Mughal Polity—A Critique of Revisionist Approaches, Modern Asian Studies, 2008, 27, 5,weblink 18 April 2024, Cambridge University Press, En, 1469-8099, ....contrast between the Oriental despotic state and the occidental laissez faire state.,
- Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991 (1993)
- BOOK, Oleg Igorevich Krassov, Oleg Krassov, Land Law in Asian Countries, 2022, Norma, 9785001562566, 75,weblink 18 April 2024, En, ebook,
- BOOK, Streusand, Douglas E., Islamic Gunpowder Empires Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals, 2018, Taylor & Francis, 9780429979217,weblink 24 April 2024, En,
Primary sources
- BOOK, Bernier, Francois,weblink Travels in the Mogul Empire, A.D. 1656–1668, Archibald Constable, London, 1891, François Bernier,
- Hiro, Dilip, ed, Journal of Emperor Babur (Penguin Classics 2007)
- The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor ed. by W.M. Thackston Jr. (2002); this was the first autobiography in Islamic literature
- Jackson, A.V. et al., eds. History of India (1907) v. 9. Historic accounts of India by foreign travellers, classic, oriental, and occidental, by A.V.W. Jackson online edition
- BOOK, Jouher,weblink The Tezkereh al vakiat or Private Memoirs of the Moghul Emperor Humayun Written in the Persian language by Jouher A confidential domestic of His Majesty, John Murray, London, Translated by Major Charles Stewart, 1832,
Older histories
- Elliot, Sir H.M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy at Packard Humanities Institute – Other Persian Texts in Translation; historical books: Author List and Title List)
- BOOK, Adams, W.H. Davenport,weblink Warriors of the Crescent, London: Hutchinson, 1893,
- BOOK, Holden, Edward Singleton,weblink The Mogul emperors of Hindustan, A.D. 1398–A.D. 1707, New York : C. Scribner's Sons, 1895, Edward Singleton Holden,
- BOOK, Malleson, G.B.,weblink Akbar and the rise of the Mughal empire, Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1896,
- BOOK, Manucci, Niccolao,weblink History of the Mogul dynasty in India, 1399–1657, tr. from French by François Catrou, London : J.M. Richardson, 1826, Niccolao Manucci,
- BOOK, Lane-Poole, Stanley,weblink History of India: From Reign of Akbar the Great to the Fall of Moghul Empire (Vol. 4), London, Grolier society, 1906, Stanley Lane-Poole,
- BOOK, Manucci, Niccolao,weblink Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 1, tr. by William Irvine (historian), William Irvine, London, J. Murray, 1907, Niccolao Manucci,
- BOOK, Manucci, Niccolao,weblink Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 2, tr. by William Irvine, London, J. Murray, 1907, Niccolao Manucci,
- BOOK, Manucci, Niccolao,weblink Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 3, tr. by William Irvine, London, J. Murray, 1907, Niccolao Manucci,
- BOOK, Owen, Sidney J,weblink The Fall of the Mogul Empire, London, J. Murray, 1912,
External links
{{sister project links|voy=Mughal Empire|n=no|d=yes}}- Mughal India an interactive experience from the British Museum
- The Mughal Empire, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Susan Stronge & Chandrika Kaul (In Our Time, 26 February 2004)
- Sunil Khilnani's "Akbar", From BBC Radio 4's Incarnations: India in 50 Lives.
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