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{{pp-semi|small=yes}}{{Contains Arabic text}}File:Kaaba at night.jpg|thumb|The Kaaba, in Mecca Saudi Arabia, is the center of Islam. Muslims from all over the world gather there to pray in unityunity
For other meanings, including people named 'Islam', see Islam (disambiguation).
Islam ( {{transl|ar|al-’islām}}, {{IPA-ar|ʔislæːm|pron|ar-al_islam.ogg}}(1)) is the monotheistic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of their one, incomparable God (, Allāh), and by the Prophet of Islam Muhammad's teachings and normative example (in Arabic called the Sunnah, demonstrated in collections of Hadith). Islam literally means "submission (to God)."(2) Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb of which Islām is the infinitive (see Islam (term)).(3)(4){{Islam}}Muslims regard their religion as the completed and universal version of a primordial, monotheistic faith revealed at many times and places before, including, notably, to the prophets Abraham, Moses and Jesus. Islamic tradition holds that previous messages and revelations have been changed and distorted over time.(5) Religious practices include the Five Pillars of Islam, which are five obligatory acts of worship.(6) Islamic law (Arabic: {{transl|ar|Šarīʿah}}) touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, encompassing everything from banking and warfare to welfare and the environment.(7)The majority of Muslims belong to one of two denominations, the Sunni and the Shi'a.(8) Islam is the predominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, and large parts of Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa.(9) Sizable communities are also found in China and Russia, and parts of the Caribbean. About 13% of Muslims live in Indonesia, the largest Muslim country,(10) 31% in the Indian Subcontinent,(11) Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world. With approximately 1.57 billion Muslims comprising about 23% of the world's population(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)

Etymology and meaning

The word Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m, and is derived from the Arabic verb Aslama, which means "to accept, surrender or submit." Thus, Islam means acceptance of and submission to God, and believers must demonstrate this by worshiping him, following his commands, and avoiding polytheism. The word is given a number of meanings in the Qur'an. In some verses (ayat), the quality of Islam as an internal conviction is stressed: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."See:
  • QURAN, 6, 125, ref, , QURAN, 61, 7, ref, , QURAN, 39, 22, ref,
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Islam, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, L. Gardet, J. Jomier, 2007-05-02, {{refnec|The Muslims of the Quran inherits the promise of the covenant between God and Abraham|date=July 2010}}.
Other verses connect islām and dīn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."(17) Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.See:
  • QURAN, 9, 74, ref, , QURAN, 49, 14, ref,
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Islam, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, L. Gardet, J. Jomier, 2007-05-02, Another technical meaning in Islamic thought is as one part of a triad of islam, imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence) where it represents acts of worship (`ibādah) and Islamic law (sharia).(18)

Articles of faith

God

File:Dcp7323-Edirne-Eski Camii Allah-ds.svg|thumb|upright|Allah means God in Arabic ]]{{See also|Oneness of God (Islam)|Allah}}Islam's fundamental theological concept is tawhīd—the belief that there is only one god. The Arabic term for God is Allāh; most scholars believe it was derived from a contraction of the words al- (the) and {{transl|ar|ISO|ʾilāh}} (deity, masculine form), meaning "the god" ({{transl|ar|ISO|al-ilāh}}), but others trace its origin to the Aramaic Alāhā.See:
  • "Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allāh.
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Allah, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, L. Gardet, 2007-05-02, Other non-Arabic nations might use different names, for instance in Turkey the Turkish word for God, "Tanrı" is used as much as Allah. The first of the Five Pillars of Islam, tawhīd is expressed in the shahadah (testification), which declares that there is no god but God, and that Muhammad is God's messenger. In traditional Islamic theology, God is beyond all comprehension; Muslims are not expected to visualize God but to worship and adore Him as the Protector. The Qur'an has described God by certain attributes or names, the most common being al-rahman, meaning "the compassionate" and al-rahim, meaning "the merciful" (See Names of God in Islam).(19) Muslims believe the purpose of life is to worship God.See:
  • QURAN, 51, 56, ref,
  • Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence Although Muslims believe that Jesus was a prophet, they reject the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism. In Islamic theology, Jesus was just a man and not the son of God;(20) God is described in Surah al ikhlaas ch.112 of the Qur'an as "...God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."See:
  • QURAN, 112, 1, 4, ref,
  • Esposito (2002b), pp.74–76
  • Esposito (2004), p.22
  • Griffith (2006), p.248
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Allah, Tawhid, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, D. Gimaret, 2007-05-02,

Revelations

{{See also|Origin and development of the Qur'an}}
missing image!
- FirstSurahKoran.jpg -
upThe first sura in a Qur'anic manuscript by Hattat Aziz Efendi
The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets, with the Qur'an as the last book. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.(21) Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl). on many occasions between 610 and his death on June 8, 632.(22) The Qur'an was reportedly written down by Muhammad's companions (sahabah) while he was alive, although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, and was standardized under the administration of Uthman, the third caliph. From textual evidence Islamic studies scholars find that the Qur'an of today has not changed significantly since it was standardized(23)See:
  • William Montgomery Watt in The Cambridge History of Islam, p.32
  • Richard Bell, William Montgomery Watt, Introduction to the Qur'an, p.51
  • F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that ... the Quran is ... the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."
The Qur'an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 āyāt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.See:
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Islam, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-17,
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Qur'an, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-17,
The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".(24) Muslim jurists consult the hadith, or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.See:
  • Esposito (2004), pp.79–81
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Tafsir, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-17,
The word Qur'an means "recitation". When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.See:
  • Teece (2003), pp.12,13
  • C. Turner (2006), p.42
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Qur'an, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, 2007-05-02, : The word Qur'an was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation.

Angels

Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malakh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess free will, and worship God in total obedience.(25) Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases..."See:
  • QURAN, 35, 1, ref,
  • Esposito (2002b), pp.26–28
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Malā'ika, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, W. Madelung, 2007-05-02,
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Angel, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online, Gisela Webb, 2007-05-02,

Prophets

{{Hadith collections2}}{{See|Muhammad|Hadith}}Muslims identify the prophets of Islam () as those humans chosen by God to be His messengers. According to the Qur'an (26) the descendants of Abraham and Imran were chosen by God to bring the "Will of God" to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the Will of God. The Qur'an mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.See:
  • Momem (1987), p.176
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Islam, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-20, Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad (Seal of the Prophets) to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God), whereas he had previously sent the other messengers (rusul) to convey their messages to all men of faith, the family of Abraham(27).
In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.See:
  • Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.666
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Hadith, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, J. Robson, 2007-05-02,
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Sunna, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, D. W. Brown, 2007-05-02,
Two major hadith collections are Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim.

Resurrection and judgment

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", yawm al-Qiyāmah (also known as yawm ad-dīn, "Day of Judgment" and as-sā`a, "the Last Hour") is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of Islamic scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.See:
  • "Resurrection", The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2003)
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Avicenna, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, 2007-05-02, : Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna".
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Qiyama, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, L. Gardet, 2007-05-02, . Resurrection will be followed by the judgment by God of those given the knowledge of the Quran.(28)
The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief, usury and dishonesty. Muslims view paradise (jannah) as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. There are also references to a greater joy—acceptance by God (ridwān).(29) Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.See:
  • Smith (2006), p.89; Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, p.565
  • "Heaven", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Garden, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online, Asma Afsaruddin, 2007-05-08,
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Paradise, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02,

Predestination

In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qadā wa'l-qadar), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'..."See:
  • QURAN, 9, 51, ref,
  • D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..." ' "
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Fate, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online, Ahmet T. Karamustafa, 2007-05-02, : The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation". For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfūz, the "Preserved Tablet".See:
  • Farah (2003), pp.119–122
  • Patton (1900), p.130
The Shi'a understanding of free will is called "divine justice" (Adalah). This doctrine, originally developed by the Mu'tazila, stresses the importance of man's responsibility for his own actions. {{refnec|In contrast, the Sunni deemphasize the role of individual free will in the context of ancestry.|date=July 2010}}

Duties and practices

Five Pillars

The Five Pillars of Islam (Arabic: أركان الإسلام) are five practices essential to Sunni Islam. Shi'a Muslims subscribe to different sets of pillars which substantially overlap with the Five Pillars.See:
  • Momem (1987), p.178
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Pillars of Islam, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02,
The Five Pillars of Islam are:
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Muslims performing salah (prayer) at the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria.
  1. The shahadah,Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 3, 39, 85, 27–272
 which is the basic creed or tenet of Islam that must be recited under an oath with the following specific statement: "{{transl|ar|ISO|'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}", or "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.See:
  • Farah (1994), p.135
  • Momen (1987), p.178
  • "Islam", Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals(2004)
  • ArticleClick.com
  • Salah, or ritual prayer, which must be performed five times a day. Each salah is done facing towards the Kaaba in Mecca. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. In many Muslim countries, reminders called Adhan (call to prayer) are broadcast publicly from local mosques at the appropriate times. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Qur'an.See:
  • Esposito (2002b), pp.18,19
  • Hedáyetullah (2006), pp.53–55
  • Kobeisy (2004), pp.22–34
  • Momen (1987), p.178
  • Sawm, or fasting during the month of Ramadan. Muslims must not eat or drink (among other things) from dawn to dusk during this month, and must be mindful of other sins. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly. Some Muslim groups do not fast during Ramadan, and instead have fasts at different times of the year.See:
  • QURAN, 2, 184, ref,
  • Esposito (2004), pp.90,91
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Islam, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02,
  • WEB,weblink For whom fasting is mandatory, USC-MSA, Compendium of Muslim Texts, 2007-04-18,
  • Zakat, or alms-giving. This is the practice of giving based on accumulated wealth, and is obligatory for all Muslims who can afford it. A fixed portion is spent to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. The zakat is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving (sadaqah).See:
  • QURAN, 2, 177, ref,
  • Esposito (2004), p.90
  • Momen (1987), p.179
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Zakat, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-11,
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Zakat, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online, 2007-05-02,
  • The Hajj, which is the pilgrimage during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. When the pilgrim is about ten kilometers from Mecca, he must dress in Ihram clothing, which consists of two white seamless sheets. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the black stone if possible, walking or running seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah, and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina. The pilgrim, or the hajji, is honored in his or her community, although Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God instead of a means to gain social standing.See:
  • Farah (1994), pp.145–147
  • Goldschmidt (2005), p.48
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Hajj, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02,

Law

The Sharia (literally: "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship, which most Muslim groups adhere to. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".(30)Over the years there have been changing views on Islamic law but many such as Zahiri and Jariri have since died out.(31)(32) Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, these prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice varies. Islamic scholars (known as ulema) have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.See:
  • Menski (2006), p.290
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Hadd, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, B. Carra de Vaux, J. Schacht, A.M. Goichon, 2007-05-02,
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Sharia, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, N. Calder, M. B. Hooker, 2007-05-02,
Fiqh, or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ar-Risālah.(33)

Religion and state

Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the ulema function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. Turkey has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. In contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Khomeini.See:
  • Esposito (2004), p. 84
  • Lapidus (2002), pp. 502–507,845
  • Lewis (2003), p. 100

Etiquette and diet

(File:Portrait of Muslim man.jpg|thumb|A Muslim male with a trimmed moustache and beard)Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.See:

Jihad

Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God) and is considered the "Sixth Pillar of Islam" by a minority of Sunni Muslim authorities.(34) Jihad, in its broadest sense, is classically defined as "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation." Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one's own self, different categories of Jihad are defined.(35) Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect.(36)(37) Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.See:
  • Brockopp (2003) pp. 99–100
  • Esposito (2003), p.93
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, jihad, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-06-13, Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.See:
  • Firestone (1999) p.17
  • "Djihad", Encyclopedia of Islam Online.
Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the defense or expansion of the Ummah. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within the Islamic community and without, with some claiming that it only serves to protect the Ummah, with no aspiration of offensive conflict, whereas others have argued that the goal of Jihad is global conquest. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims or hamper proselytizing efforts.(38)(39) Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies conform to the Islamic norms of justice.(40)Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (fard kifaya): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (imam), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.(41) occultation in 868 AD.(42)

History

Muhammad (610-632)

{{See also|Early reforms under Islam}}File:Madina Haram at evening .jpg|thumb|400px|Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Saudi Arabia, is the site of Muhammad's tombtombMuhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) was a trader later becoming a religious, political, and military leader. Muslims view him not as the creator of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and others. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last and the greatest in a series of prophets—as the man closest to perfection, the possessor of all virtues.See:
  • Esposito (1998), p.12
  • Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
  • F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Muhammad, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-17, For the last 22 years of his life, in 610, beginning at age 40, Muhammad started receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his companions.See:
  • QURAN, 18, 110, ref,
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Muhammad, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, F. Buhl, A. T. Welch, 2007-05-02,
During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 12 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad established his political and religious authority. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the Battle of Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the Battle of Uhud in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement or death, and the Jewish enclave of Khaybar was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.See:
  • F.E.Peters(2003), pp.78,79,194
  • Lapidus (2002), pp.23–28 By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he ruled over the Arabian peninsula.(43)

Rise of the caliphate and civil war (632–750)

{{See|Succession to Muhammad|Muslim conquests|Battle of Karbala}}Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before migrating to Medina, from where he united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".See:
  • Holt (1977a), p.57
  • Hourani (2003), p.22
  • Lapidus (2002), p.32
  • Madelung (1996), p.43
  • Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50
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The territory of the Caliphate in 750
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The Great Mosque of Kairouan also known as the Mosque of Uqba was founded by Arab general Uqba Ibn Nafi in 670. It is the oldest mosque in the western Islamic world and represents one of the best architectural examples of Islamic civilization,(44) city of Kairouan, Tunisia.
His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories.See
  • Holt (1977a), p.74
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Islam, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, L. Gardet, J. Jomier, 2007-05-02,
When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu'awiyah, who was governor of Levant, seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty.(45)These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a.(46) After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the Maghrib and Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula, former Visigothic Hispania) and the Narbonnese Gaul) in the west as well as expand Muslim territory into Sindh and the fringes of Central Asia.(47) One of the best preserved architectural examples of Islamic conquest, is the Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) founded in 670 by the Arab conqueror and Umayyad general Uqba ibn Nafi (48) and considered as the ancestor and model for all the mosques in the western Islamic world (49){{,}}(50). The muladies (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have comprised the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.(51) While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Sufism.See:
  • Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Sufism, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-13,
For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only;(52) the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.(53) Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "Islamic Golden Age", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.See:
  • Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105
  • Holt (1977b), pp.661–663
  • Lapidus (2002), p.56
  • Lewis (1993), p.84
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Islam, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, L. Gardet, J. Jomier, 2007-05-02,

Golden Age (750–1258)

{{See|Muslim Agricultural Revolution}}The Golden Age saw new legal, philosophical, and religious developments. The major hadith collections were compiled and the four modern Sunni Madh'habs were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist al-Shafi'i; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars.(54) Philosophers Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.See:
  • Lapidus (2002), p.160
  • Waines (2003) p.126,127 Finally, Sufism and Shi'ism both underwent major changes in the 9th century. Sufism became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi'ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams.See:
  • Esposito (2004), pp.44–45
  • Lapidus (2002), pp.90–94
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Sufism, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02,
The Bimaristan hospitals, (which replaced healing temples and sleep temples) are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word(55) and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors of medicine.(56)(57) The Guinness Book of World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 CE.(58) The origins of the doctorate also dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in madrasahs which taught law.(59) During this time, standards of experimental and quantification techniques were introduced to the scientific process to distinguish between competing theories.(60)(61) Ibn Al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world’s first true scientist."(62) It is argued that the tradition of citation and referencing began during this time.(63)(64)(65) the agency and aval (Hawala),(66) and the lawsuit and medical peer review.(67)The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among medieval ecclesiastical Christian authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which depicted Islam as the religion of the antichrist and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman.(68) In the medieval period, a few Arab philosophers like the poet Al-Ma'arri adopted a critical approach to Islam, and the Jewish philosopher Maimonides contrasted Islamic views of morality to Jewish views that he himself elaborated.See:
  • Novak (February 1999)
  • Sahas (1997), pp.76–80

Fragmentation and Invasions

{{See|Mongol invasion of Central Asia|Ilkhanate}}
missing image!
- Hattin.jpg -
upArtistic depiction of the Battle of Hattin in 1187, where Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin's Ayyubid forces
By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, emirates formed as provinces broke away. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more religiously homogenized Muslim world where the Shia Fatimids contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. In the 10th century the powerful Ghaznavids conquered the Afghan-Persian region and a large part of the Indian subcontinent in the name of Islam. They were replaced by the Ghurids in the 12th century. In 836, Caliph Al-Mu'tasim moved the capital of the Caliphate from Baghdad to the new city of Samarra, which would remain the capital until 892 when it was returned to Baghdad by al-Mu'tamid. By 1055 the Seljuq Turks had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph's titular authority.See:
  • Lapidus (2002), p.103–143
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Abbasid Dynasty, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02, During this time, expansion of the Muslim world continued, by both conquest and peaceful proselytism even as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan West Africa, Central Asia, Volga Bulgaria and the Malay archipelago.
Starting in the 9th century, Muslim conquests in the West began to be reversed. The Reconquista was launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, and Muslim Italian possessions were lost to the Normans. From the 11th century onwards alliances of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of wars known as the Crusades, aimed at reversing Muslim military conquests within the eastern part of the former Roman Empire, especially in the Holy Land. Initially successful in this aim, and establishing the Crusader states, these gains were later reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as Saladin, who recaptured Jerusalem in 1187.(69)In the east the Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258, as they overran the Muslim lands in a series of invasions. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier Mamluks took control in an uprising in 1250See:
  • Lapidus (2002), p.292
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Islamic World, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02, and in alliance with the Golden Horde halted the Mongol armies at the Battle of Ain Jalut. Over the next century the Mongol Khanates converted to Islam and this religious and cultural absorption ushered in a new age of Mongol-Islamic synthesis that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia, eastern Europe and the Indian subcontinent. The Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.(70)
The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century.(71) It is probable that the Mongols and merchant caravans making use of the opportunities of free passage offered by the Pax Mongolica inadvertently brought the plague from Central Asia to the Middle East and Europe.(72) Plague epidemics kept returning to the Islamic world up to the 19th century.(73)

New dynasties and colonialism (1030–1918)

The Seljuk Turks conquered Abbassid lands, adopted Islam and become the de facto rulers of the caliphate. They captured Anatolia by defeating the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, thereby precipitating the call for Crusades. They fell apart in the second half of the 12th century giving rise to various semi-autonomous Islamic dynasties such as the powerful Ayyubids who conquered Egypt and a Jerusalem in the name of Islam.In the 13th and 14th centuries the Ottoman Empire (named after Osman I) emerged from among these "Ghazi emirates" and established itself after a string of conquests that included the Balkans, parts of Greece, and western Anatolia. In 1453 under Mehmed II the Ottomans laid siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium, which succumbed shortly thereafter, having been overwhelmed by a far greater number of Ottoman troops and to a lesser extent, cannonry.See
  • Holt (1977a), p.263
  • Lapidus (2002), p.250
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Istanbul, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02,
Under Ottoman rule, many people in the Balkans became Muslim.
missing image!
- TajMahalbyAmalMongia.jpg -
The Taj Mahal was built by Muslim rulers of the Mughal Empire in Agra, India.
Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.(74) Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the Masnavi, a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century Persian poet Rumi. The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur'an.(75)From the 14th century to the 16th century much of the eastern Islamic world was experiencing another golden age under the Timurid dynasty. In the early 16th century, the Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained in power for two centuries until being usurped by the Hotaki dynasty in the early 18th century. Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched a European campaign which reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529.See:
  • Lapidus (2002), pp.198,234,244,245,254
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Islam, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, L. Gardet, J. Jomier, 2007-05-02,
After the invasion of Persia and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in the mid 13th century, Delhi became the most important cultural centre of the Muslim east.(76) Many Islamic dynasties ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent starting with the Ghaznavids in the 10th century. The prominent ones included the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526–1857). These empires helped in the spread of Islam in South Asia, but by the early 18th century the Hindu Maratha Empire was becoming the pre-eminent power in northern India until they were weakened by the Durrani Empire in the mid-18th century.Around the 18th century, despite attempts at modernization, the Ottoman empire had begun to feel threatened by European economic and military advantages. It was during the 18th century that the Wahhabi movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.See:
  • Lapidus (2002), p.572
  • Watt (1973), p.18: Wahhabism should not be confused with the early Kharijite sect of Wahabiyya, which was named after Abd-Allah ibn-Wahb ar-Rasibi, who opposed Ali at Nahrawan.
By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the last Mughal dynasty,(77) and overthrew the Muslim-ruled Kingdom of Mysore. In the 19th century, the rise of nationalism resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. The Ottoman era came to a close at the end of World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.(78)(79)During this time, many Muslims migrated, as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.(80) Additionally, the resulting urbanization and increase in trade in Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith. As a result, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa likely doubled between 1869 and 1914.(81)In the 19th century, the Salafi, Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated.

Modern times (1918–present)

{{See|Fall of the Ottoman Empire|Arab Revolt|Arab–Israeli conflict|Islam and secularism|Iranian revolution}}By the early years of the 20th century, most of the Muslim world outside the Ottoman empire had been absorbed into the empires of non-Islamic European powers. After World War I losses, nearly all of the Ottoman empire was also parceled out as European protectorates or spheres of influence. In the course of the 20th century, most of these European-ruled territories became independent, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of Israel have assumed prominence.(82)The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), consisting of Muslim countries, was formally established in September 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.(83)

Islamic revival and Islamist movements

{{See|Islamic revival|Islamism}}The 20th century saw the Islamic world increasingly exposed to outside cultural influences, bringing potential changes to Muslim societies. In response, new Islamic "revivalist" movements were initiated as a counter movement to non-Islamic ideas. Groups such as Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan and the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. Sometimes called Islamist, they see Western cultural values as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private question of importance.In countries like Iran, revolutionary movement replaced secular regime with an Islamic state, while transnational groups like Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda engage in terrorism to further their goals. In contrast, Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".See:
  • Esposito (2004), pp.118,119,179
  • Lapidus (2002), pp.823–830
Modern criticism of Islam includes accusations that Islam is intolerant of criticism and that Islamic law is too hard on apostates from Islam. Critics like Ibn Warraq question the morality of the Qu'ran, saying that its contents justify the mistreatment of women and encourage antisemitic remarks by Muslim theologians.See: Others like Daniel Pipes and Martin Kramer focus more on criticizing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism, a danger they feel has been ignored.(88) Montgomery Watt and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and polemics.See:
  • Seibert (1994), pp.88–89
  • Watt (1974), p.231 The rise of Islamophobia, according to Carl Ernst, had contributed to the negative views about Islam and Muslims in the West.(89) In contrast, Pascal Bruckner and Paul Berman have entered the "Islam in Europe" debate. Berman identifies a "reactionary turn in the intellectual world" represented by Western scholars who idealize Islam.(90)

Community

Demographics

{{See also|List of countries by Muslim population}}(File:World Muslim Population Pew Forum.png|right|300px|thumb|Muslim population by percentage worldwide)(File:Muslim majority countries.png|right|300px|thumb|Muslim majority countries.)A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232 countries and territories reported that 23% of the global population or 1.57 billion people are Muslims.(91) Of those, an estimated 87–90% are Sunni(92)(93) and 10–13% are Shi'a,(94) and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide.The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa.(95) Approximately 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, with over 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh.(96)(97) In the Middle East, non-Arab countries such as Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities.(98)Most estimates indicate that the People's Republic of China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).(99)(100)(101)(102) However, data provided by the San Diego State University's International Population Center to U.S. News & World Report suggests that China has 65.3 million Muslims.(103) Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries,See:
  • Esposito (2004) pp.2,43
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Islamic World, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02,
WEB,weblink Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents, Adherents.com, 2007-01-09,
  • NEWS, Muslims in Europe: Country guide,weblink BBC, BBC News, 2005-12-23, 2006-09-28,
  • WEB, Religion In Britain,weblink Office for National Statistics, National Statistics, 2003-02-13, 2006-08-27,
and is slowly catching up to that status in the Americas.

Mosques

File:Faisal mosque2.jpg|thumb|upright|Faisal Mosque in IslamabadIslamabadA mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, masjid. The word mosque in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid jāmi`).(104) Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.See:
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Masdjid, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, J. Pedersen, R. Hillenbrand, J. Burton-Page, et al., 2007-05-02,
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Mosque, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02,

Family life

{{See also|Women in Islam}}(File:Bejeweled Girl Portrait.jpg|thumb|upright|Many Muslim women do not show their hair in public.)The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of inheritance is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. The woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.(105) Marriage in Islam is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.
  • Waines (2003) pp. 93–96
  • The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339
  • Esposito (1998) p. 79
A man may have up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may have only one husband. In most Muslim countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as talaq, which the husband initiates by pronouncing the word "divorce".(106) Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as veiling and seclusion (purdah).Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other practices such as polygamy in Islam, with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. Certain Islamist groups like the Taliban have sought to continue traditional law as applied to women.
  • Esposito (2004), pp.95,96,235–241
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Marriage and Divorce, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an, Harald Motzki, 2007-05-15,
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Marriage Practices, Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures, Lori Peek, 2007-05-15,

Calendar

File:Crescent Moon.JPG|thumb|upright|The Islamic calendar is based on the lunar cyclelunar cycleThe formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (Anno Hegirae) in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar calendar, with nineteen ordinary years of 354 days and eleven leap years of 355 days in a thirty-year cycle. Islamic dates cannot be converted to CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years: allowance must also be made for the fact that each Hijri century corresponds to only 97 years in the Christian calendar.See:
  • Adil (2002), p.288
  • F. E. Peters (2003), p.67
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Tarikh̲, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, B. van Dalen, R. S. Humphreys, Manuela Marín, et al., 2007-05-02,
The year 1428 AH coincides almost completely with 2007 CE.Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.(107) Similar to the Jewish calendar, days in the Islamic calendar last from sunset to sunset.(108)

Clergy

There are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam but generally refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several fields of Islamic studies. In a broader sense, the term ulema is used to describe the body of Muslim clergy who have completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences, such as a mufti, qadi, faqih, or muhaddith. Some Muslims include under this term the village mullahs, imams, and maulvis—who have attained only the lowest rungs on the ladder of Islamic scholarship; other Muslims would say that clerics must meet higher standards to be considered ulema. Some Muslims pratcise ijtihad whereby they don't accept the authority of clergy.(109)

Denominations

File:Madhhab Map2.png|thumb|300px|Distribution of Islamic schools and branches in areas where large Muslim population are found ]]Islam consists of a number of religious denominations that are essentially similar in belief but which have significant theological and legal differences. The primary division is between the Sunni and the Shi'a, with Sufism generally considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. Sunnis make up the largest branch of Islam(110) followed by the Shi'a(111) and the remaining number may belong to a variety of other Islamic sects.See:
  • Esposito (2002b), p.2

Sunni

(File:Divisions of Islam.png|upright|thumb|Movements in Islam)Sunni Muslims are the largest group in Islam, comprising the vast bulk of the world's 1.5 billion Muslims, hence the title Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘ah (people of the principle and majority). In Arabic, as-Sunnah literally means "principle" or "path". The Qur'an and the Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) as recorded in hadith are the primary foundations of Sunni doctrine. Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis believe that a caliph should be chosen by the whole community.(112)There are four recognised madh'habs (schools of thought): Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or she finds agreeable.See:
  • Esposito (2003), pp.275,306
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Shariah, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02,
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Sunnite, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02,

Shi'a

The Shi'a constitute 10–13% of Islam and are its second-largest branch.BOOK
, Miller
, Tracy
, 10
, 2009
, Pew Research Center
, Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population
, PDF
,weblink
, 2009-10-08,
They believe in the political and religious leadership of Imams from the progeny of Ali ibn Abi Talib, who according to most Shi'a are in a state of ismah, meaning infallibility. They believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, as the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was his rightful successor, and they call him the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To most Shi'a, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation. Shias regard Ali as the prophet's true successor and believe that a caliph is appointed by divine will.See
  • Lapidus (2002), p.46
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Imam, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02,
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Shi'ite, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02, Shi'a Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the Twelvers ({{transl|ar|ISO|iṯnāʿašariyya}}) which the label Shi'a generally refers to. Although the Twelver Shi'a share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of hadith. The Twelver Shi'a follow a legal tradition called Ja'fari jurisprudence.See:
  • Ahmed (1999), pp.44–45
  • Nasr (1994), p.466 Other smaller groups include the Ismaili and Zaidi, who differ from Twelvers in both their line of successors and theological beliefs.See:
  • Kramer (1987), Syria's Alawis and Shi''ism pp.237–254
  • Shia branches

Sufism

File:Whirling Dervishes 2.JPG|thumb|Sufi whirling dervishes in TurkeyTurkeySufism is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.(113) Sufism and Islamic law are usually considered to be complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by salafi for what they see as an unjustified religious innovation. Many Sufi orders, or tariqas, can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a, but others classify themselves simply as 'Sufi'.(114)See:
  • Esposito (2003), p.302
  • Malik (2006), p.3
  • B. S. Turner (1998), p.145
  • WEB,weblink Country Studies, U. S. Library of Congress (Federal Research Division), Afghanistan: A Country Study, 2007-04-18, 150, Some Sufi groups can be described as non-Islamic when their teachings are very distinct from Islam.

Ahmadiyya

Ahmadiyya is an Islamic religious movement founded towards the end of the 19th century and originating with the life and teachings of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835–1908). Ghulam Ahmad was an important religious figure who claimed to have fulfilled the prophecies about the world reformer of the end times, who was to herald the Eschaton as predicted in the traditions of various world religions and bring about the final triumph of Islam as per Islamic prophecy. He claimed that he was the Mujaddid (divine reformer) of the 14th Islamic century, the promised Messiah (“Second Coming of Christ”) and Mahdi awaited by Muslims.(115)(116)(117)(118)(119) Ahmadi emphasis lay in the belief that Islam is the final law for humanity as revealed to Muhammad and the necessity of restoring to it its true essence and pristine form, which had been lost through the centuries. Thus, Ahmadis view themselves as leading the revival and peaceful propagation of Islam.(120)

Others

  • There are also Muslims who generally reject the Hadith, often called Quranists.
  • The Kharijites are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites is Ibadism. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. The Imamate is an important topic in Ibadi legal literature, which stipulates that the leader should be chosen solely on the basis of his knowledge and piety, and is to be deposed if he acts unjustly. Most Ibadi Muslims live in Oman.See:
  • UGA.edu, Ibadi Islam: An Introduction
  • J. A. Williams (1994), p.173
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA, al-Ibāḍiyya, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, 2007-05-02, There are communities of Ibadis that took refuge in the Mzab oases in southern Algeria, the Nafusa Mountains in western Libya, and in Djerba Island (Tunisia), in order to avoid persecution in certain periods of history.(121)

Other religions

The Alevi, Yazidi, Druze, Bábí, Bahá'í, Berghouata and Ha-Mim movements either emerged out of Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam. Some consider themselves separate while others still sects of Islam though controversial in certain beliefs with mainstream Muslims.

See also

{{Col-begin}}{{Col-1-of-3}} {{Col-2-of-3}} {{Col-3-of-3}}{hide}Wikipedia-Books
|1=Abrahamic religions
|3=Islam
{edih}{{Col-end}}

References

Citations





  1. There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is {{IPA-en|z|}} or {{IPA|/s/}}, and whether the a is pronounced {{IPA|/ɑː/}} as in father, {{IPA|/æ/}} as in cat, or (when the stress is on the i) {{IPA|/ə/}} as in the a of sofa (Merriam Webster). The most common are {{IPA-en|ˈɪzləm, ˈɪsləm, ɪzˈlɑːm, ɪsˈlɑːm|}} (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and {{IPA-en|ˈɪzlɑːm, ˈɪslɑːm|}} (American Heritage Dictionary).


  2. WEB,weblink USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts, Usc.edu, 2010-05-16,


  3. ENCYCLOPEDIA, Islam, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, L. Gardet, J. Jomier, 2007-05-02,


  4. WEB,weblink Lane's lexicon, 2007-07-03, PDF,


  5. See: * Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it. * Esposito (1998), pp.6,12* Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5* F. E. Peters (2003), p.9* ENCYCLOPEDIA, Muhammad, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, F. Buhl, A. T. Welch, 2007-05-02, * ENCYCLOPEDIA, Tahrif, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, 2007-05-02,


  6. Esposito (2002b), p.17


  7. See: * Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118* ENCYCLOPEDIA, Shari'ah, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02,


  8. Miller (2009), pp.4,11


  9. Britannica, Think Quest, Wadsworth.com


  10. Miller (2009), pp.8,17


  11. and 20% in Arab countries.See:* Esposito (2002b), p.21* Esposito (2004), pp.2,43 * Miller (2009), pp.9,19


  12. (see Islam by country), Islam is the second-largest religion in the world and arguably the fastest growing religion in the world.PBS – Islam Today (Islam, followed by more than a billion people today, is the world's fastest growing religion and will soon be the world's largest.)


  13. No God But God by Thomas W. Lippman of U.S. News & World Report. April 7, 2008."Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is a unique religion based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others."


  14. Understanding Islam by Susan Headden of U.S. News & World Report. April 7, 2008.


  15. WEB,weblink The world's fastest growing religions, Foreignpolicy.com, 2010-05-16,


  16. WEB,weblink Major Religions of the World — Ranked by Number of Adherents, 2007-07-03,


  17. QURAN, 5, 3, ref, , QURAN, 3, 19, ref, , QURAN, 3, 83, ref,


  18. Cyril Glassé, The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 192


  19. BOOK, Bentley, David, The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book, William Carey Library, 1999, September, 0-87808-299-9,


  20. ENCYCLOPEDIA, Tathlith, Trinity, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online, David Thomas, 2007-05-11, : Contrary to Muslim understanding, some scholars have suggested that the Qur'an only opposes certain deviant forms of Trinitarian belief.


  21. Muslims believe that the Qur'an is the literal Word of God; it is the central religious text of Islam revealed in Arabic.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Qur'an, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-17,


  22. Esposito (2004), pp.17,18,21


  23. WEB,weblink USC.edu, USC.edu, 2010-05-16,


  24. Esposito (2004), p.79


  25. QURAN, 21, 19, 20, ref, , QURAN, 35, 1, ref,


  26. WEB,weblink The Koran, Quod.lib.umich.edu, 2009-12-12,


  27. Challenges to Religion and Islam, p. 229


  28. Challenges to Religion and Islam, p. 230


  29. QURAN, 9, 72, ref,


  30. ENCYCLOPEDIA, Shari'ah, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02,


  31. Berg, Herbert. "Islamic Law." Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History 3 (2005): 1030.


  32. Dien, Mawil Izzi. Islamic Law: From Historical Foundations To Contemporary Practice. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004.


  33. Weiss (2002), pp.xvii,162


  34. Esposito (2003), p.93


  35. Firestone (1999) pp. 17–18


  36. Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17–18


  37. Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad


  38. Firestone (1999) p.17


  39. ENCYCLOPEDIA, Djihād, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, 2007-05-02,


  40. Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108–109, 118


  41. For most Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi'sSeyyed Hossein NasrThe Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 72


  42. cf. Sachedina (1998) p. 105 and 106


  43. ENCYCLOPEDIA, Muhammad, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, F. Buhl, A. T. Welch, 2007-05-02,


  44. WEB,weblink Great Mosque of Kairouan, Muslim Heritage.com, 2003-04-24, 2010-05-16,


  45. Holt (1977a), pp.67–72


  46. Waines (2003) p.46


  47. Donald Puchala, ‘’Theory and History in International Relations,’’ page 137. Routledge, 2003.


  48. Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Historic cities of the Islamic world, page 260. BRILL, 2007.


  49. Nnamdi Elleh, Architecture and power in Africa, page 115. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002.


  50. John Stothoff Badeau and John Richard Hayes, The Genius of Arab civilization: source of Renaissance, page 104. Taylor & Francis, 1983.


  51. Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. Chapter 5: Ethnic Relations, Thomas F. Glick


  52. Hawting (2000), p.4


  53. Lapidus (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83


  54. Lapidus (2002), p.86


  55. {{citation|last=Micheau|first=Françoise|contribution=The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East|pages=991–2}}, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=985-1007}}


  56. {{citation|title=From Jami`ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue|first=Syed Farid|last=Alatas|journal=Current Sociology|volume=54|issue=1|pages=112–32|doi=10.1177/0011392106058837|year=2006}}


  57. {{citation|title=Muslim Spain 711-1492 A.D.|first=S. M.|last=Imamuddin|publisher=Brill Publishers|year=1981|isbn=9004061312|page=169}}


  58. The Guinness Book Of Records, Published 1998, ISBN 0-5535-7895-2, P.242


  59. {{citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=109|issue=2|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 [175–77]|doi=10.2307/604423|url=http://jstor.org/stable/604423|publisher=American Oriental Society}}


  60. Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. Print. ISBN 1-59008-040-8 page 23, 84.


  61. Rosanna Gorini (2003), "Al-Haytham the Man of Experience, First Steps in the Science of Vision", International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy:


  62. BBC News The ‘first true scientist.’


  63. S. Spectorsky: Al-Bukhari; Dictionary of the Middle Ages; vol 2; pp. 397-9; at p. 398.


  64. Legal institutions introduced in Islamic law include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf),{{Harv|Gaudiosi|1988}}


  65. {{Harv|Hudson|2003|p=32}}


  66. {{citation|title=Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems|first=Gamal Moursi|last=Badr|journal=The American Journal of Comparative Law|volume=26|issue=2 – Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, February 24–25, 1977|date=Spring, 1978|pages=187–198 [196–8]|doi=10.2307/839667|url=http://jstor.org/stable/839667|publisher=American Society of Comparative Law}}


  67. Ray Spier (2002), "The history of the peer-review process", Trends in Biotechnology 20 (8), pp. 357–358 [357].


  68. Tolan (2002) xv, xvi, 41


  69. Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310


  70. The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves. Eizo Matsuki. Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University.


  71. WEB,weblink Islamic Medicine Part III: Diseases of the Middle Ages, Sfusd.edu, 2010-05-16,


  72. Black Death, Great Moments in Science, ABC Science


  73. WEB,weblink The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Black Death), Ucalgary.ca, 2010-05-16,


  74. Esposito (2004), pp.104,105


  75. ENCYCLOPEDIA, Islamic Art, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02,


  76. Ikram, S. M. 1964. Muslim Civilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press


  77. Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624


  78. Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493


  79. WEB,weblink New Turkey, Weekly.ahram.org.eg, 2010-05-16,


  80. Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271


  81. Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0618427708


  82. Lapidus (2002), pp.281–282,380,489–493,556,578,823,835


  83. NEWS,weblink Organization of the Islamic Conference, BBC News, 2008-09-18, 2010-05-16,


  84. For example see Major Themes of the Qur'an by Fazlur Rahman Malik in which he argues against the treatment of the Qur'an as either a piecemeal or an evolutionary progression of ideas. See review by William A. Graham (1983), p.446.


  85. For example see The Spirit of Islam by Syed Ameer Ali (1849–1928). It is described by David Samuel Margoliouth (1905) as "probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed". See Margoliouth, preface Mohammed and the Rise of Islam.


  86. Westerlund (2003)


  87. NEWS, Advance, University of Connecticut, 2003-11-17, Ramadan Awareness Event Designed To Debunk Negative Images, Elizabeth Omara-Otunnu,weblink


  88. NEWS, Bernstein, Richard, Experts on Islam Pointing Fingers At One Another,weblink The New York Times, 2007-05-14, 2001-11-03,


  89. Ernst (2004), p.11


  90. MAGAZINE, Berman, Paul, Paul Berman, Who's Afraid of Tariq Ramadan?: The Islamist, the journalist, and the defense of liberalism., The New Republic, June 4, 2007,weblink


  91. Miller (2009), pp.4,11


  92. {{citation|url=http://pewforum.org/docs/?DocID=450|title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population: Main Page|publisher=Pew Research Center}}


  93. Encyclopædia Britannica, Sunnite


  94. with a small minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 50 countries are Muslim-majority,Miller (2009), p.11


  95. WEB,weblink Islam: An Overview in Oxford Islamic Studies Online, Oxfordislamicstudies.com, 2008-05-06, 2010-05-16,


  96. Secrets of Islam – U.S. News & World Report. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University (2005).


  97. Miller (2009), pp.15,17


  98. WEB,weblink Number of Muslim by country, nationmaster.com, 2007-05-30,


  99. WEB,weblink CIA – The World Factbook – China, Cia.gov, 2009-06-15,


  100. WEB,weblink China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet), State.gov, 2009-06-15,


  101. WEB,weblink NW China region eyes global Muslim market, China Daily, 2008-07-09, 2009-07-14,


  102. WEB,weblink Muslim Media Network, Muslim Media Network, 2008-03-24, 2009-07-14,


  103. Secrets of Islam, U.S. News & World Report. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University.


  104. BOOK, Budge's Egypt: A Classic 19th Century Travel Guide, Budge, E.A. Wallis, Courier Dover Publications, June 13, 2001, 123–128, 0-486-41721-2,


  105. "al-Mar'a". Encyclopaedia of Islam


  106. *"Talak". Encyclopaedia of Islam


  107. Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws


  108. Patheos Library – Islam Sacred Time – Patheos.com


  109. Weiss (2002), pp.3,161


  110. weblink


  111. WEB,weblink Pilgrimage to Karbala ~ Sunni and Shia: The Worlds of Islam | Wide Angle, Public Broadcasting Service, PBS, 2007-03-26, 2010-05-16,


  112. From the article on Sunni Islam in Oxford Islamic Studies Online


  113. Trimingham (1998), p.1


  114. WEB,weblink Sufism, Sufis, and Sufi Orders: Sufism's Many Paths, Uga.edu, 2010-05-16,


  115. “The Fourteenth-Century's Reformer / Mujaddid”, from the “Call of Islam”, by Maulana Muhammad Ali


  116. Claims of Hadhrat Ahmad, Chapter Two


  117. Reflection of all the Prophets


  118. Future of Revelation, Part 7


  119. The Removal of a Misunderstanding


  120. The Ahmadi Muslim Community. Who are the Ahmadi Muslims and what do they believe? Waqar Ahmad Ahmedi gives a brief introduction to the Ahmadi branch of Islam. Times Online. May 27, 2008.


  121. WEB,weblink Valerie J. Hoffman, Ibadi Islam: An Introduction, Uga.edu, 2010-05-16,




Footnotes





  1. There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is {{IPA-en|z|}} or {{IPA|/s/}}, and whether the a is pronounced {{IPA|/ɑː/}} as in father, {{IPA|/æ/}} as in cat, or (when the stress is on the i) {{IPA|/ə/}} as in the a of sofa (Merriam Webster). The most common are {{IPA-en|ˈɪzləm, ˈɪsləm, ɪzˈlɑːm, ɪsˈlɑːm|}} (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and {{IPA-en|ˈɪzlɑːm, ˈɪslɑːm|}} (American Heritage Dictionary).


  2. WEB,weblink USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts, Usc.edu, 2010-05-16,


  3. ENCYCLOPEDIA, Islam, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, L. Gardet, J. Jomier, 2007-05-02,


  4. WEB,weblink Lane's lexicon, 2007-07-03, PDF,


  5. See: * Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it. * Esposito (1998), pp.6,12* Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5* F. E. Peters (2003), p.9* ENCYCLOPEDIA, Muhammad, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, F. Buhl, A. T. Welch, 2007-05-02, * ENCYCLOPEDIA, Tahrif, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, 2007-05-02,


  6. Esposito (2002b), p.17


  7. See: * Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118* ENCYCLOPEDIA, Shari'ah, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02,


  8. Miller (2009), pp.4,11


  9. Britannica, Think Quest, Wadsworth.com


  10. Miller (2009), pp.8,17


  11. and 20% in Arab countries.See:* Esposito (2002b), p.21* Esposito (2004), pp.2,43 * Miller (2009), pp.9,19


  12. (see Islam by country), Islam is the second-largest religion in the world and arguably the fastest growing religion in the world.PBS – Islam Today (Islam, followed by more than a billion people today, is the world's fastest growing religion and will soon be the world's largest.)


  13. No God But God by Thomas W. Lippman of U.S. News & World Report. April 7, 2008."Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is a unique religion based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others."


  14. Understanding Islam by Susan Headden of U.S. News & World Report. April 7, 2008.


  15. WEB,weblink The world's fastest growing religions, Foreignpolicy.com, 2010-05-16,


  16. WEB,weblink Major Religions of the World — Ranked by Number of Adherents, 2007-07-03,


  17. QURAN, 5, 3, ref, , QURAN, 3, 19, ref, , QURAN, 3, 83, ref,


  18. Cyril Glassé, The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 192


  19. BOOK, Bentley, David, The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book, William Carey Library, 1999, September, 0-87808-299-9,


  20. ENCYCLOPEDIA, Tathlith, Trinity, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online, David Thomas, 2007-05-11, : Contrary to Muslim understanding, some scholars have suggested that the Qur'an only opposes certain deviant forms of Trinitarian belief.


  21. Muslims believe that the Qur'an is the literal Word of God; it is the central religious text of Islam revealed in Arabic.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Qur'an, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-17,


  22. Esposito (2004), pp.17,18,21


  23. WEB,weblink USC.edu, USC.edu, 2010-05-16,


  24. Esposito (2004), p.79


  25. QURAN, 21, 19, 20, ref, , QURAN, 35, 1, ref,


  26. WEB,weblink The Koran, Quod.lib.umich.edu, 2009-12-12,


  27. Challenges to Religion and Islam, p. 229


  28. Challenges to Religion and Islam, p. 230


  29. QURAN, 9, 72, ref,


  30. ENCYCLOPEDIA, Shari'ah, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02,


  31. Berg, Herbert. "Islamic Law." Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History 3 (2005): 1030.


  32. Dien, Mawil Izzi. Islamic Law: From Historical Foundations To Contemporary Practice. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004.


  33. Weiss (2002), pp.xvii,162


  34. Esposito (2003), p.93


  35. Firestone (1999) pp. 17–18


  36. Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17–18


  37. Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad


  38. Firestone (1999) p.17


  39. ENCYCLOPEDIA, Djihād, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, 2007-05-02,


  40. Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108–109, 118


  41. For most Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi'sSeyyed Hossein NasrThe Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 72


  42. cf. Sachedina (1998) p. 105 and 106


  43. ENCYCLOPEDIA, Muhammad, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, F. Buhl, A. T. Welch, 2007-05-02,


  44. WEB,weblink Great Mosque of Kairouan, Muslim Heritage.com, 2003-04-24, 2010-05-16,


  45. Holt (1977a), pp.67–72


  46. Waines (2003) p.46


  47. Donald Puchala, ‘’Theory and History in International Relations,’’ page 137. Routledge, 2003.


  48. Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Historic cities of the Islamic world, page 260. BRILL, 2007.


  49. Nnamdi Elleh, Architecture and power in Africa, page 115. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002.


  50. John Stothoff Badeau and John Richard Hayes, The Genius of Arab civilization: source of Renaissance, page 104. Taylor & Francis, 1983.


  51. Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. Chapter 5: Ethnic Relations, Thomas F. Glick


  52. Hawting (2000), p.4


  53. Lapidus (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83


  54. Lapidus (2002), p.86


  55. {{citation|last=Micheau|first=Françoise|contribution=The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East|pages=991–2}}, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=985-1007}}


  56. {{citation|title=From Jami`ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue|first=Syed Farid|last=Alatas|journal=Current Sociology|volume=54|issue=1|pages=112–32|doi=10.1177/0011392106058837|year=2006}}


  57. {{citation|title=Muslim Spain 711-1492 A.D.|first=S. M.|last=Imamuddin|publisher=Brill Publishers|year=1981|isbn=9004061312|page=169}}


  58. The Guinness Book Of Records, Published 1998, ISBN 0-5535-7895-2, P.242


  59. {{citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=109|issue=2|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 [175–77]|doi=10.2307/604423|url=http://jstor.org/stable/604423|publisher=American Oriental Society}}


  60. Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. Print. ISBN 1-59008-040-8 page 23, 84.


  61. Rosanna Gorini (2003), "Al-Haytham the Man of Experience, First Steps in the Science of Vision", International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy:


  62. BBC News The ‘first true scientist.’


  63. S. Spectorsky: Al-Bukhari; Dictionary of the Middle Ages; vol 2; pp. 397-9; at p. 398.


  64. Legal institutions introduced in Islamic law include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf),{{Harv|Gaudiosi|1988}}


  65. {{Harv|Hudson|2003|p=32}}


  66. {{citation|title=Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems|first=Gamal Moursi|last=Badr|journal=The American Journal of Comparative Law|volume=26|issue=2 – Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, February 24–25, 1977|date=Spring, 1978|pages=187–198 [196–8]|doi=10.2307/839667|url=http://jstor.org/stable/839667|publisher=American Society of Comparative Law}}


  67. Ray Spier (2002), "The history of the peer-review process", Trends in Biotechnology 20 (8), pp. 357–358 [357].


  68. Tolan (2002) xv, xvi, 41


  69. Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310


  70. The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves. Eizo Matsuki. Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University.


  71. WEB,weblink Islamic Medicine Part III: Diseases of the Middle Ages, Sfusd.edu, 2010-05-16,


  72. Black Death, Great Moments in Science, ABC Science


  73. WEB,weblink The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Black Death), Ucalgary.ca, 2010-05-16,


  74. Esposito (2004), pp.104,105


  75. ENCYCLOPEDIA, Islamic Art, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007-05-02,


  76. Ikram, S. M. 1964. Muslim Civilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press


  77. Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624


  78. Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493


  79. WEB,weblink New Turkey, Weekly.ahram.org.eg, 2010-05-16,


  80. Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271


  81. Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0618427708


  82. Lapidus (2002), pp.281–282,380,489–493,556,578,823,835


  83. NEWS,weblink Organization of the Islamic Conference, BBC News, 2008-09-18, 2010-05-16,


  84. For example see Major Themes of the Qur'an by Fazlur Rahman Malik in which he argues against the treatment of the Qur'an as either a piecemeal or an evolutionary progression of ideas. See review by William A. Graham (1983), p.446.


  85. For example see The Spirit of Islam by Syed Ameer Ali (1849–1928). It is described by David Samuel Margoliouth (1905) as "probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed". See Margoliouth, preface Mohammed and the Rise of Islam.


  86. Westerlund (2003)


  87. NEWS, Advance, University of Connecticut, 2003-11-17, Ramadan Awareness Event Designed To Debunk Negative Images, Elizabeth Omara-Otunnu,weblink


  88. NEWS, Bernstein, Richard, Experts on Islam Pointing Fingers At One Another,weblink The New York Times, 2007-05-14, 2001-11-03,


  89. Ernst (2004), p.11


  90. MAGAZINE, Berman, Paul, Paul Berman, Who's Afraid of Tariq Ramadan?: The Islamist, the journalist, and the defense of liberalism., The New Republic, June 4, 2007,weblink


  91. Miller (2009), pp.4,11


  92. {{citation|url=http://pewforum.org/docs/?DocID=450|title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population: Main Page|publisher=Pew Research Center}}


  93. Encyclopædia Britannica, Sunnite


  94. with a small minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 50 countries are Muslim-majority,Miller (2009), p.11


  95. WEB,weblink Islam: An Overview in Oxford Islamic Studies Online, Oxfordislamicstudies.com, 2008-05-06, 2010-05-16,


  96. Secrets of Islam – U.S. News & World Report. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University (2005).


  97. Miller (2009), pp.15,17


  98. WEB,weblink Number of Muslim by country, nationmaster.com, 2007-05-30,


  99. WEB,weblink CIA – The World Factbook – China, Cia.gov, 2009-06-15,


  100. WEB,weblink China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet), State.gov, 2009-06-15,


  101. WEB,weblink NW China region eyes global Muslim market, China Daily, 2008-07-09, 2009-07-14,


  102. WEB,weblink Muslim Media Network, Muslim Media Network, 2008-03-24, 2009-07-14,


  103. Secrets of Islam, U.S. News & World Report. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University.


  104. BOOK, Budge's Egypt: A Classic 19th Century Travel Guide, Budge, E.A. Wallis, Courier Dover Publications, June 13, 2001, 123–128, 0-486-41721-2,


  105. "al-Mar'a". Encyclopaedia of Islam


  106. *"Talak". Encyclopaedia of Islam


  107. Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws


  108. Patheos Library – Islam Sacred Time – Patheos.com


  109. Weiss (2002), pp.3,161


  110. weblink


  111. WEB,weblink Pilgrimage to Karbala ~ Sunni and Shia: The Worlds of Islam | Wide Angle, Public Broadcasting Service, PBS, 2007-03-26, 2010-05-16,


  112. From the article on Sunni Islam in Oxford Islamic Studies Online


  113. Trimingham (1998), p.1


  114. WEB,weblink Sufism, Sufis, and Sufi Orders: Sufism's Many Paths, Uga.edu, 2010-05-16,


  115. “The Fourteenth-Century's Reformer / Mujaddid”, from the “Call of Islam”, by Maulana Muhammad Ali


  116. Claims of Hadhrat Ahmad, Chapter Two


  117. Reflection of all the Prophets


  118. Future of Revelation, Part 7


  119. The Removal of a Misunderstanding


  120. The Ahmadi Muslim Community. Who are the Ahmadi Muslims and what do they believe? Waqar Ahmad Ahmedi gives a brief introduction to the Ahmadi branch of Islam. Times Online. May 27, 2008.


  121. WEB,weblink Valerie J. Hoffman, Ibadi Islam: An Introduction, Uga.edu, 2010-05-16,




Books and journals

  • JOURNAL, Accad, Martin, The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I), Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, 14, 1, 2003, ISSN 0959-6410,
  • BOOK, Adil, Hajjah Amina, Shaykh Nazim Adil Al-Haqqani, Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, Muhammad: The Messenger of Islam, Islamic Supreme Council of America, 2002, 978-1930409118,
  • BOOK, Ahmed, Akbar, Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World, I. B. Tauris, 2.00, 1999, 978-1860642579,
  • BOOK, Armstrong, Karen, Muhammad: A Prophet for our Time, HarperCollins, 2006, 006059897-2,
  • BOOK, Brockopp, Jonathan E., Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia, University of South Carolina press, 2003, 1570034710,
  • BOOK, Cohen-Mor, Dalya, A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature, Oxford University Press, 2001, 0195133986,
  • BOOK, Curtis, Patricia A., 2005, A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations, Blackwell Publishing Professional, 978-0813819464,
  • BOOK, Eglash, Ron, 1999, African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design, Rutgers University Press, 0-8135-2614-0,
  • BOOK, Ernst, Carl, Carl Ernst, 2004, Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World, University of North Carolina Press, 0-8078-5577-4,
  • BOOK, Esposito, John, John Esposito, John Obert Voll, Islam and Democracy, 1996, Oxford University Press, 0-19-510816-7,
  • BOOK, Esposito, John, Islam: The Straight Path, Oxford University Press, 1998, 3rd, 978-0195112344,
  • BOOK, Esposito, John, Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Muslims on the Americanization Path?, 2000a, Oxford University Press, 0-19-513526-1,
  • BOOK, Esposito, John, 2000b, Oxford History of Islam, Oxford University Press, 978-0195107999,
  • BOOK, Esposito, John, 2002a, Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam, Oxford University Press, 978-0195168860,
  • BOOK, Esposito, John, 2002b, What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam, Oxford University Press, 0-19-515713-3,
  • BOOK, Esposito, John, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Oxford University Press, 2003, 0-19-512558-4,
  • BOOK, Esposito, John, Islam: The Straight Path, Oxford University Press, 2004, 3rd Rev Upd, 978-0195182668,
  • BOOK, Farah, Caesar, Caesar E. Farah, Islam: Beliefs and Observances, Barron's Educational Series, 1994, 5th, 978-0812018530,
  • BOOK, Farah, Caesar, Islam: Beliefs and Observances, Barron's Educational Series, 2003, 7th, 978-0764-12226-2,
  • BOOK, Firestone, Reuven, Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam, Oxford University Press, 1999, 019-5125800,
  • BOOK, Friedmann, Yohanan, Yohanan Friedmann, Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition, Cambridge University Press, 2003, 978-0521026994,
  • BOOK, Ghamidi, Javed, Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, Mizan, Al-Mawrid, Dar al-Ishraq, 2001, {{OCLC, 52901690, }}
  • BOOK, Goldschmidt, Jr., Arthur, Lawrence Davidson, A Concise History of the Middle East, Westview Press, 2005, 8th, 978-0813342757,
  • BOOK, Griffith, Ruth Marie, Barbara Dianne Savage, Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006, 0801883709,
  • BOOK, Hawting, G. R., G.R. Hawting, The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750, Routledge, 2000, 0415240735,
  • BOOK, Hedayetullah, Muhammad, Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition, Trafford Publishing, 2006, 978-1553698425,
  • BOOK, Holt, P. M., Bernard Lewis, Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1, 1977a, Cambridge University Press, 0521291364,
  • BOOK, Holt, P. M., Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis, Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2, 1977b, Cambridge University Press, 0521291372,
  • BOOK, Hourani, Albert, Albert Hourani, Malise Ruthven, Ruthven, Malise, A History of the Arab Peoples, 2003, Belknap Press; Revised edition, 978-0674010178,
  • BOOK, Humphreys, Stephen, Between Memory and Desire, 2005, University of California Press, 052-0246918,
  • BOOK, Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar, Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People, Praeger Publishers, 2004, 978-0313324727,
  • BOOK, Koprulu, Mehmed Fuad, Leiser, Gary, The Origins of the Ottoman Empire, SUNY Press, 1992, 0791408191,
  • BOOK, Kramer, Martin, Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution, Westview Press, 1987, 978-0813304533,
  • BOOK, Kugle, Scott Alan, Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam, Indiana University Press, 2006, 0253347114,
  • BOOK, Lapidus, Ira, A History of Islamic Societies, Cambridge University Press, 2002, 2nd, 978-0521779333,
  • BOOK, Lewis, Bernard, Bernard Lewis, The Jews of Islam, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984, 0-7102-0462-0,
  • BOOK, Lewis, Bernard, The Arabs in History, Oxford University Press, 1993, 0-1928-5258-2,
  • BOOK, Lewis, Bernard, The Middle East, Scribner, 1997, 978-0684832807,
  • BOOK, Lewis, Bernard, Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East, Open Court, 2nd, 2001, 978-0812695182,
  • BOOK, Lewis, Bernard, What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East, Harper Perennial, Reprint, 2003, 978-0060516055,
  • BOOK, Lewis, Bernard, The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror, Random House, Inc., New York, 2004, 978-0812967852,
  • BOOK, Madelung, Wilferd, Wilferd Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate, Cambridge University Press, 1996, 0521646960,
  • BOOK, Malik, Jamal, John R Hinnells, Inc NetLibrary, Sufism in the West, Routledge, 2006, 0415274087,
  • BOOK, Menski, Werner F., Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa, Cambridge University Press, 2006, 0521858593,
  • JOURNAL, Mohammad, Noor, The Doctrine of Jihad: An Introduction, Journal of Law and Religion, 3, 2, 1985, 10.2307/1051182, 381,weblink Journal of Law and Religion, Inc.,
  • BOOK, Momen, Moojan, An Introduction to Shi`i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi`ism, Yale University Press, 1987, 978-0300035315,
  • BOOK, Nasr, Seyed Muhammad, Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7), HarperCollins, 1994, 0-06067-700-7,
  • JOURNAL, Novak, David, The Mind of Maimonides, First Things, February, 1999,
  • BOOK, Parrinder, Geoffrey, Geoffrey Parrinder, World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present, Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited, 1971, 0-87196-129-6,
  • JOURNAL, Patton, Walter M., The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân, The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, April, 1900, 16, 3, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 9004103147, 10.1086/369367, 129,
  • JOURNAL, Peters, F. E., F. E. Peters, The Quest for Historical Muhammad, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 1991,
  • BOOK, Peters, F. E., Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians, Princeton University Press, 2003, 0-691-11553-2,
  • BOOK, Peters, Rudolph, Rudolph Peters, Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam, Brill Academic Publishers, 1977, 90-04-04854-5,
  • BOOK, Rippin, Andrew, Andrew Rippin, Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Routledge, 2nd, 2001, 978-0415217811,
  • BOOK, Ruthven, Malise, Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning, Oxford University Press, 2005, 01-92-80606-8,
  • BOOK, Sahas, Daniel J., John of Damascus on Islam: The Heresy of the Ishmaelites, Brill Academic Publishers, 1997, 978-9004034952,
  • BOOK, Abdulaziz Sachedina, Sachedina, Abdulaziz, The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence, Oxford University Press US, 1998, 0195119150,
  • JOURNAL, Seibert, Robert F., Review: Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Norman Daniel), Review of Religious Research, 1994, 36, 1, 10.2307/3511655, 88, Daniel, Norman,weblink Religious Research Association, Inc.,
  • BOOK, Sells, Michael Anthony, Michael Anthony Sells, Emran Qureshi, The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy, Columbia University Press, 2003, 0231126670,
  • BOOK, Smith, Jane I., The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection, Oxford University Press, 2006, 978-0195156492,
  • BOOK, Stillman, Norman, Norman Stillman, The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book, Jewish Publication Society of America, Philadelphia, 1979, 1-82760-198-1,
  • BOOK, Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn, Seyyed Hossein Nasr (translator), Allameh Tabatabaei, Shi'ite Islam{{Islam topics|state=collapsed}}{{Religion topics}}{{Featured article}}Islamእስልምናإسلامİslamইসলাম(zh-min-nan:I-su-lân-kàu)(map-bms:Islam)ИсламІслам(be-x-old:Іслам)Islamདབྱི་སི་ལམ་ཆོས་ལུགས།IslamIslamIslámIslamuIslamIslamIslamIslamΙσλάμIslamIslamoIslamاسلامIslamIslamIslamAn tIoslamIslamIslamઇસ્લામ ધર્મ이슬람교IslamaԻսլամइस्लामIslamIslamIslamÍslamIslamאסלאםIslamIslamಇಸ್ಲಾಂ ಧರ್ಮისლამიИсләмИсламUislamuÎslamReligio IslamicaIslāmsIslamasIszlámИсламഇസ്‌ലാംइस्लाम धर्मIslamИсламIslamismoIslam(nds-nl:Islam)イスラム教IslamIslamIslomاسلامសាសនាឥស្លាមIslamIslamIslãoIslamIslamIslamИсламइस्लामFeja IslameIslamاسلامIslamIslamIslaamИсламIslamIslamIslamIslamIslamஇசுலாம்Íslamఇస్లాం మతంศาสนาอิสลามИсломİslamYslamІсламاسلامئىسلام دىنىHồi giáo(fiu-vro:Muhamediusk)(zh-classical:回教)LislaamאיסלאםÌmàle(zh-yue:伊斯蘭教)(bat-smg:Ėslams)伊斯兰教

    - content above as imported from The Pseudopedia
    - "Islam" does not exist on GetWiki
    - time: 1:17pm EDT - Thu, Jul 29 2010


    year=1979, 0-87395-272-3,
    • BOOK, Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn, R. Campbell (translator), Islamic teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam, Green Gold, 2002, 0-922817-00-6,
    • BOOK, Teece, Geoff, Religion in Focus: Islam, Franklin Watts Ltd, 2003, 978-0749647964,
    • BOOK, Tolan, John V., Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination, Columbia University Press, 2002, 0231123329,
    • BOOK, Trimingham, John Spencer, The Sufi Orders in Islam, Oxford University Press, 1998, 0195120582,
    • BOOK, Tritton, Arthur S., Arthur Stanley Tritton, The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar, Frank Cass Publisher, London, 1970, 1930, 0-7146-1996-5,
    • BOOK, Turner, Colin, Islam: the Basics, Routledge (UK), 2006, ISBN 041534106X, 041534106X,
    • BOOK, Turner, Bryan S., Weber and Islam, Routledge (UK), 1998, 0415174589,
    • BOOK, Waines, David, An Introduction to Islam, Cambridge University Press, 2003, 0521539064,
    • BOOK, Warraq, Ibn, The Quest for Historical Muhammad, Prometheus, 2000, 978-1573927871,
    • BOOK, Warraq, Ibn, Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out, Prometheus, 2003, 1-59102-068-9,
    • BOOK, Watt, W. Montgomery, William Montgomery Watt, The Formative Period of Islamic Thought, University Press Edinburgh, 1973, 0-85-224245-X,
    • BOOK, Watt, W. Montgomery, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, Oxford University Press, New, 1974, 0-19-881078-4,
    • BOOK, Weiss, Bernard G., Studies in Islamic Legal Theory, 2002, Boston, Brill Academic publishers, 9004120661,
    • BOOK, Williams, John Alden, The Word of Islam, 1994, University of Texas Press, 0-292-79076-7,
    • BOOK, Williams, Mary E., The Middle East, 2000, Greenhaven Pr, 0737701331,

    Encyclopedias

    • ENCYCLOPEDIA, William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian, Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History, Berkshire Publishing Group, 2005, ISBN 978-0974309101,
    • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Gabriel Oussani, Catholic Encyclopedia, 1910,
    • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton, The Columbia Encyclopedia, Gale Group, 2000, 6th, ISBN 978-1593392369,
    • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Encyclopædia Britannica Online, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.,
    • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Erwin Fahlbusch, William Geoffrey Bromiley, Encyclopedia of Christianity, Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill, 2001, 1st, ISBN 0-8028-2414-5,
    • ENCYCLOPEDIA, John Bowden, Encyclopedia of Christianity, Oxford University Press, 2005, 1st, ISBN 0-19-522393-4,
    • ENCYCLOPEDIA, George Thomas Kurian, Graham T. T. Molitor, Encyclopedia of the Future, MacMillan Reference Books, 1995, ISBN 978-0028972053,
    • ENCYCLOPEDIA, P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online, Brill Academic Publishers, ISSN 1573-3912,
    • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll, Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, MacMillan Reference Books, 2003, 978-0028656038,
    • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online, Brill Academic Publishers,
    • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Lindsay Jones, Encyclopedia of Religion, MacMillan Reference Books, 2005, 2nd, ISBN 978-0028657332,
    • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Salamone Frank, Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals, Routledge, 1st, 2004, 9780415941808,
    • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Peter N. Stearns, 6th, 2000, The Encyclopedia of World History Online, Bartleby,
    • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Josef W. Meri, Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, 2005, 041-5966906,
    • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Wendy Doniger, Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam-Webster, 1999, 0877790442,
    • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Glasse Cyril, New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, AltaMira Press, 2003, ISSN 978-0759101906,
    • ENCYCLOPEDIA, Edward Craig, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, 1998, 1st, ISBN 978-0415073103,

    Further reading

    • World Muslim Population: 1950 -2020, by Dr. Houssain Kettani
    • BOOK, Arberry, A. J., A. J. Arberry, The Koran Interpreted: A Translation, Touchstone, 1st, 1996, 978-0684825076,
    • BOOK, Khan, Muhammad Muhsin, Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Al-Hilali Khan, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din, Noble Quran, 1999, Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1st, 978-9960740799,
    • BOOK, Kramer (ed.), Martin, Martin Kramer, The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis, Syracuse University, 1999, 978-9652240408,
    • BOOK, Kuban, Dogan, Muslim Religious Architecture, Brill Academic Publishers, 1974, 9004038132,
    • BOOK, Lewis, Bernard, Islam and the West, Oxford University Press, 1994, 978-0195090611,
    • BOOK, Lewis, Bernard, Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery, Oxford University Press, 1996, 978-0195102833,
    • BOOK, Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman, The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet, Dar-us-Salam Publications, 2002, 978-1591440710,
    • BOOK, Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah, History of Islam, Dar-us-Salam Publications, 2001, 978-1591440345,
    • BOOK, Nigosian, S. A., Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices, Indiana University Press, 2004, New, 978-0253216274,
    • BOOK, Rahman, Fazlur, Fazlur Rahman, Islam, University of Chicago Press, 1979, 2nd, 0-226-70281-2,
    • BOOK, Tausch, Arno, Arno Tausch, Muslim Calvinism, Rozenberg Publishers, Amsterdam, 2009, 1st, 978-9051709957,
    • BOOK, Tausch, Arno, What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the “World Values Survey”. Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University, Nova Science Publishers, New York, 2009, 1st, 978-1-60692-731-1,
    • BOOK, Walker, Benjamin, Benjamin Walker, Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith, Peter Owen Publishers, 1998, 978-0720610383,
    Minorities in Islam:
    • A. Khanbaghi. The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran (IB Tauris, 2006).

    External links

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