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{{Short description|Historical hereditary states in China}}{{History of China |related |BC=yes}}{{Contains special characters|Tangut}}{{Contains special characters|Mongolian}}{{Contains special characters|Manchu}}For most of its history, China was organized into various dynastic states under the rule of hereditary monarchs. Beginning with the establishment of dynastic rule by Yu the Great {{circa|2070 BC}}, and ending with the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor in AD 1912, Chinese historiography came to organize itself around the succession of monarchical dynasties.{{efn|name=“Pre-Xia“|While the Xia dynasty is typically considered to be the first orthodox Chinese dynasty, numerous sources including the Book of Documents mention two other dynasties that preceded the Xia: the “Tang” () and the “Yu” () dynasties.BOOK, Nadeau, Randall, The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions, 2012,books.google.com/books?id=FmnKSfAS4PcC&q=tang+yu+xia+shang+zhou&pg=PA31, 31, 9781444361971, BOOK, Yeo, Khiok-Khng, Musing with Confucius and Paul: Toward a Chinese Christian Theology, 2008,books.google.com/books?id=_tDYDwAAQBAJ&q=yu+xia+shang+zhou+dynasty&pg=PA24, 24, 9780227903308, BOOK, Chao, Yuan-ling, Medicine and Society in Late Imperial China: A Study of Physicians in Suzhou, 1600–1850, 2009,books.google.com/books?id=oiGkWyynvAMC&q=tang+yu+xia+shang+zhou+dynasty&pg=PA73, 73, 9781433103810, JOURNAL, Wang, Shumin, 2002, 夏、商、周之前还有个虞朝,www.ixueshu.com/document/13b7db55e198eae3318947a18e7f9386.html, Hebei Academic Journal, 22, 1, 146–147, 20 August 2020, The former is sometimes called the “Ancient Tang” () to distinguish it from other dynasties named “Tang”.WEB,k.sina.cn/article_7062118287_1a4ef5f8f00100ky0y.html, 远古时期的“古唐朝“？比夏朝还早1600年，如被证实历史或将改写, 21 June 2022, Should the historicity of these earlier dynasties be attested, Yu the Great would not have been the initiator of dynastic rule in China.}}{{efn|name=“Post-Qing“|All attempts at restoring monarchical and dynastic rule in China following the Xinhai Revolution ended in failure. Hence, the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor in AD 1912 is typically regarded as the formal end of the Chinese monarchy.}} Besides those established by the dominant Han ethnic group or its spiritual Huaxia predecessors, dynasties throughout Chinese history were also founded by non-Han peoples.BOOK, Skutsch, Carl, Encyclopedia of the World’s Minorities, 2013,books.google.com/books?id=yXYKAgAAQBAJ&q=chinese+dynasty+han+and+non-han&pg=PA287, 287, 9781135193881, Dividing Chinese history into dynastic epochs is a convenient and conventional method of periodization.BOOK, Keay, John, China: A History, 2010,books.google.com/books?id=fcy1N5GXs4wC&q=chinese+dynasty+broken+succession&pg=PT21, 9780007372089, Accordingly, a dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned, as well as to describe events, trends, personalities, artistic compositions, and artifacts of that period.BOOK, Wang, Yeyang, Zhao, Qingyun, 当代中国近代史理论研究, 2016,books.google.com/books?id=oIlVDwAAQBAJ&q=%E6%9C%9D%E4%BB%A3+%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E5%8F%99%E8%BF%B0%E7%9A%84%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E8%84%89%E7%BB%9C&pg=PT19, 9787516188231, For example, porcelain made during the Ming dynasty may be referred to as “Ming porcelain”.BOOK, William, Atwell, Ming China and the Emerging World Economy, Twitchett, Denis, Fairbank, John, Mote, Frederick, The Cambridge History of China, 1978,books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&q=ming+porcelain&pg=PA395, 394–395, 9780521243339, The longest-reigning orthodox dynasty of China was the Zhou dynasty, ruling for a total length of about 790 years, albeit it is divided into the Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou in Chinese historiography.BOOK, Sadow, Lauren, Peeters, Bert, Mullan, Kerry, Studies in Ethnopragmatics, Cultural Semantics, and Intercultural Communication: Minimal English (and Beyond), 2019,books.google.com/books?id=9MO4DwAAQBAJ&q=zhou+dynasty+longest+dynasty&pg=PA100, 100, 9789813299795, The largest orthodox Chinese dynasty in terms of territorial size was either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source.BOOK, Bauch, Martin, Schenk, Gerrit, The Crisis of the 14th Century: Teleconnections between Environmental and Societal Change?, 2019,books.google.com/books?id=G0HEDwAAQBAJ&q=yuan+dynasty+largest+territory&pg=PA153, 153, 9783110660784, BOOK, Ruan, Jiening, Zhang, Jie, Leung, Cynthia, Chinese Language Education in the United States, 2015,books.google.com/books?id=FvbpCgAAQBAJ&q=yuan+dynasty+largest+territory&pg=PA9, 9, 9783319213088, BOOK, Wei, Chao-hsin, The General Themes of the Ocean Culture World, 1988,books.google.com/books?id=eXE_AAAAYAAJ&q=yuan+dynasty+largest+territory, 17, BOOK, Adler, Philip, Pouwels, Randall, World Civilizations: Volume I: To 1700, 2011,books.google.com/books?id=Tds8AAAAQBAJ&q=qing+dynasty+largest+territory&pg=PA373, 373, 9781133171065, BOOK, Rowe, William, China’s Last Empire: The Great Qing, 2010,books.google.com/books?id=KN7Awmzx2PAC&q=qing+dynasty+largest+territory&pg=PA1, 1, 9780674054554, {{efn|name=“GreatYuan“|As per contemporary historiographical norm, the “Yuan dynasty” in this article refers exclusively to the realm based in Dadu. However, the Han-style dynastic name “Great Yuan” () as proclaimed by the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and the claim to Chinese political orthodoxy were meant for the entire Mongol Empire.BOOK, Robinson, David, In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia, 2019,books.google.com/books?id=itKyDwAAQBAJ&q=great+yuan+entire+mongol+empire&pg=PA50, 50, 9781108482448, BOOK, Robinson, David, Empire’s Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols, 2009,books.google.com/books?id=PDjWpqU55eMC&q=great+yuan+refer+to+entire+mongol+empire&pg=PA293, 293, 9780674036086, BOOK, Brook, Timothy, Walt van Praag, Michael van, Boltjes, Miek, Sacred Mandates: Asian International Relations since Chinggis Khan, 2018,books.google.com/books?id=6p1WDwAAQBAJ&q=great+yuan+refer+to+entire+mongol+empire&pg=PA45, 45, 9780226562933, In spite of this, “Yuan dynasty” is rarely used in the broad sense of the definition by modern-day scholars due to the de facto disintegration of the Mongol Empire.}}The term “{{transl|zh|Tiāncháo}}” (; “Celestial Dynasty” or “Heavenly Dynasty“) was frequently employed as a self-reference by Chinese dynasties.BOOK, Nevius, John, John Livingstone Nevius, China and the Chinese, 1869,books.google.com/books?id=lvt8GobNM5MC&q=heavenly+dynasty+china&pg=PA22, 22, 9788120606906, BOOK, Wang, Hongsheng, 历史的瀑布与峡谷：中华文明的文化结构和现代转型, 2007,books.google.com/books?id=EXoLAQAAMAAJ&q=中国朝代自称天朝, 139, 9787300081830, As a form of respect and subordination, Chinese tributary states referred to these dynasties as “{{transl|zh|Tiāncháo Shàngguó}}” (; “Celestial Dynasty of the Exalted State“) or “{{transl|zh|Tiāncháo Dàguó}}” (; “Celestial Dynasty of the Great State“).

Terminology

The Chinese character {{zhc|c=朝|p=cháo}} originally meant “morning” or “today”. Subsequently, its scope was extended to refer to the regime of the incumbent ruler. Terms commonly used when discussing historical Chinese dynasties include:

• {{zhc|p=cháo|c=朝|l=dynasty}}
• {{zhc|p=cháodài|c=朝代|l=dynastic era}}
• {{zhc|p=wángcháo|c=王朝|l=royal dynasty}}{{efn|While the character {{zhc|c=王|p=wáng}} is translated as “king”, this term is often more broadly applied to all dynasties, including those whose rulers held non-royal titles, such as “emperor”.WEB, The Paper,www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_1864544, 陆大鹏谈翻译：历史上的“王朝“与“皇朝”, 4 August 2020, zh, }}
• {{zhc|p=huángcháo|c=皇朝|l=imperial dynasty}}

History

Start of dynastic rule

File:King Yu of Xia.jpg|220px|thumb|right|A depiction of Yu, the initiator of dynastic rule in China, by the Southern Song court painter Ma Lin.]]As the founder of China’s first orthodox dynasty, the Xia dynasty, Yu the Great is conventionally regarded as the inaugurator of dynastic rule in China.BOOK, Ebrey, Patricia, Liu, Kwang-Ching, The Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 2010,books.google.com/books?id=vr81YoYK0c4C&q=yu+the+great+dynastic+rule&pg=PA10, 10, 9780521124331, {{efn|name=“Pre-Xia“}} In the Chinese dynastic system, sovereign rulers theoretically possessed absolute power and private ownership of the realm, even though in practice their actual power was dependent on numerous factors.BOOK, Chan, Joseph, Confucian Perfectionism: A Political Philosophy for Modern Times, 2013,books.google.com/books?id=Zaj3AAAAQBAJ&q=jia+tian+xia&pg=PA213, 213, 9781400848690, {{efn|name=“Constitution“|In AD 1906, the Qing dynasty initiated a series of reforms under the auspices of the Empress Xiaoqinxian to transition to a constitutional monarchy. On 27 August 1908, the Outline of the Constitution Compiled by Imperial Order was promulgated and served as a preliminary version of a full constitution originally intended to take effect 10 years later.BOOK, Koenig, Lion, Chaudhuri, Bidisha, Politics of the ‘Other’ in India and China: Western Concepts in Non-Western Contexts, 2017,books.google.com/books?id=3GeaCwAAQBAJ&q=Principles+of+the+Constitution+qing&pg=PA157, 157, 9781317530558, On 3 November 1911, as a response to the ongoing Xinhai Revolution, the Qing dynasty issued the Nineteen Major Articles of Good Faith on the Constitution which limited the power of the Qing emperor, marking the official transition to a constitutional monarchy.BOOK, Gao, Quanxi, Zhang, Wei, Tian, Feilong, The Road to the Rule of Law in Modern China, 2015,books.google.com/books?id=6eBsBgAAQBAJ&q=qing+constitution+1911+19+creed&pg=PA135, 135, 9783662456378, BOOK, To, Michael, China’s Quest for a Modern Constitutional Polity: from dynastic empires to modern republics, 2017,books.google.com/books?id=ZsEzDwAAQBAJ&q=qing+constitution+1911+19+creed&pg=PA54, 54, The Qing dynasty, however, was overthrown on 12 February 1912.}} By tradition, the Chinese throne was inherited exclusively by members of the male line, but there were numerous cases whereby the consort kins came to possess de facto power at the expense of the monarchs.BOOK, Whitaker, Donald, Shinn, Rinn-Sup, Area Handbook for the People’s Republic of China, 1972,books.google.com/books?id=gXl80SVbbjoC&q=chinese+throne+inheritance+male+line&pg=PA37, 37, {{efn|name=“ConsortKin“|A powerful consort kin, usually a male, could force the reigning monarch to abdicate in his favor, thereby prompting a change in dynasty. For example, Wang Mang of the Xin dynasty was a nephew of the Empress Xiaoyuan who in turn was the spouse of the Western Han ruler, the Emperor Yuan of Han.BOOK, Xiong, Deshan, Social History Of China, 2015,books.google.com/books?id=90stDQAAQBAJ&q=wang+mang+wang+zhengjun+emperor+yuan&pg=PA95, 95, 9781938368264, }} This concept, known as {{transl|zh|jiā tiānxià}} (; “All under Heaven belongs to the ruling family“), was in contrast to the pre-Xia notion of {{transl|zh|gōng tiānxià}} (; “All under Heaven belongs to the public“) whereby leadership succession was non-hereditary and based on the abdication system.BOOK, Qi, Zhixiang, 中國現當代人學史：思想演變的時代特徵及其歷史軌跡, 2016,books.google.com/books?id=DPcCDAAAQBAJ&q=公天下&pg=PA21, 21, 9789869244923,

Dynastic transition

File:Shanhaiguan.gif|220px|thumb|right|An illustration of the Battle of Shanhai Pass, a decisive battle fought during the Ming–Qing transition. The victorious Qing dynastyQing dynastyThe rise and fall of dynasties is a prominent feature of Chinese history. Some scholars have attempted to explain this phenomenon by attributing the success and failure of dynasties to the morality of the rulers, while others have focused on the tangible aspects of monarchical rule.BOOK, Perdue, Peter, China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia, 2009,books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&q=dynastic+cycle+china&pg=PA6, 6, 9780674042025, This method of explanation has come to be known as the dynastic cycle.BOOK, Elleman, Bruce, Paine, Sarah, Modern China: Continuity and Change, 1644 to the Present, 2019,books.google.com/books?id=8-SEDwAAQBAJ&q=dynastic+cycle&pg=PA19, 19, 9781538103876, BOOK, Zheng, Yongnian, Huang, Yanjie, Market in State: The Political Economy of Domination in China, 2018,books.google.com/books?id=CHpnDwAAQBAJ&q=dynastic+cycle+john+fairbank&pg=PA83, 83, 9781108473446, Cases of dynastic transition (; {{transl|zh|gÇŽi cháo huàn dài}}) in the history of China occurred primarily through two ways: military conquest and usurpation.WEB,kknews.cc/history/2vj832e.html, 我国古代改朝换代的方式不外乎两种，哪种才是主流？, 18 November 2019, The supersession of the Liao dynasty by the Jin dynasty was achieved following a series of successful military campaigns, as was the later unification of China proper under the Yuan dynasty; on the other hand, the transition from the Eastern Han to the Cao Wei, as well as from the Southern Qi to the Liang dynasty, were cases of usurpation. Oftentimes, usurpers would seek to portray their predecessors as having relinquished the throne willingly—akin to the abdication system of throne succession—as a means to legitimize their rule.BOOK, Fan, Shuzhi, 国史精讲, 2007,books.google.com/books?id=9xgzAQAAIAAJ&q=禅让+篡位, 99, 9787309055634, One might incorrectly infer from viewing historical timelines that transitions between dynasties occurred abruptly and roughly. Rather, new dynasties were often established before the complete overthrow of an existing regime.BOOK, Wilkinson, Endymion, Chinese History: A Manual, 2000,books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC&q=chinese+dynastic+name+guohao&pg=PA13, 14, 9780674002494, For example, AD 1644 is frequently cited as the year in which the Qing dynasty succeeded the Ming dynasty in possessing the Mandate of Heaven. However, the Qing dynasty was officially proclaimed in AD 1636 by the Emperor Taizong of Qing through renaming the Later Jin established in AD 1616, while the Ming imperial family would rule the Southern Ming until AD 1662.BOOK, Perkins, Dorothy, Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture, 2013,books.google.com/books?id=KMQeAgAAQBAJ&q=qing+dynasty+later+jin&pg=PA1, 1, 9781135935627, BOOK, Di Cosmo, Nicola, The Diary of a Manchu Soldier in Seventeenth-Century China: “My Service in the Army”, by Dzengseo, 2007,books.google.com/books?id=8piRAgAAQBAJ&q=southern+ming&pg=PA1, 1, 9781135789558, The Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning based in Taiwan continued to oppose the Qing until AD 1683.BOOK, Elman, Benjamin, A Cultural History of Modern Science in China, 2006,books.google.com/books?id=cIfkH9EWUngC&q=southern+ming&pg=PA46, 46, 9780674023062, Meanwhile, other factions also fought for control over China during the Ming–Qing transition, most notably the Shun and the Xi dynasties proclaimed by Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong respectively.BOOK, Tanner, Harold, China: A History, 2009,books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&q=shun+dynasty&pg=PA335, 335, 978-0872209152, BOOK, Pines, Yuri, The Everlasting Empire: The Political Culture of Ancient China and Its Imperial Legacy, 2012,books.google.com/books?id=hwoM6gOPydEC&q=zhang+xianzhong+great+xi&pg=PA157, 157, 978-0691134956, BOOK, Mote, Frederick, Imperial China 900-1800, 2003,books.google.com/books?id=SQWW7QgUH4gC&q=zhang+xianzhong+great+xi&pg=PA798, 798, 9780674012127, This change of ruling houses was a convoluted and prolonged affair, and the Qing took almost two decades to extend their rule over the entirety of China proper.Similarly, during the earlier Sui–Tang transition, numerous regimes established by rebel forces vied for control and legitimacy as the power of the ruling Sui dynasty weakened. Autonomous regimes that existed during this period of upheaval included, but not limited to, Wei (; by Li Mi), Qin (; by Xue Ju), Qi (; by Gao Tancheng), Xu (; by Yuwen Huaji), Liang (; by Shen Faxing), Liang (; by Liang Shidu), Xia (; by Dou Jiande), Zheng (; by Wang Shichong), Chu (; by Zhu Can), Chu (; by Lin Shihong), Wu (; by Li Zitong), Yan (; by Gao Kaidao), and Song (; by Fu Gongshi). The Tang dynasty that superseded the Sui launched a decade-long military campaign to reunify China proper.BOOK, Skaff, Jonathan, Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580-800, 2012,books.google.com/books?id=qTm6Yka5GigC&q=rebel+during+sui+tang+transition&pg=PA80, 80, 9780199734139, {{anchor|Er Wang San Ke}}Frequently, remnants and descendants of previous dynasties were either purged or granted noble titles in accordance with the “two crownings, three respects” system. The latter served as a means for the reigning dynasty to claim legitimate succession from earlier dynasties. For example, the Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei was accorded the title “Prince of Zhongshan” by the Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi following the latter’s deposition of the former.BOOK, Gong, Yin, 中国民族政策史, 2006,books.google.com/books?id=gxhKAQAAIAAJ&q=東魏孝静帝+中山王, 253, 9787220071041, Similarly, Chai Yong, a nephew of the Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, was conferred the title “Duke of Chongyi” by the Emperor Renzong of Song; other descendants of the Later Zhou ruling house came to inherit the noble title thereafter.BOOK, Zhang, Cheng, 禅让：中国历史上的一种权力游戏, 2007,books.google.com/books?id=k-gyAQAAIAAJ&q=柴咏+崇义公, 200, 9787801066961, According to Chinese historiographical tradition, each new dynasty would compose the history of the preceding dynasty, culminating in the Twenty-Four Histories.BOOK, Stunkel, Kenneth, Fifty Key Works of History and Historiography, 2012,books.google.com/books?id=9pem7Ip_WUgC&q=a+new+dynasty+took+on+responsibility+to+write+the+history+of+the+previous+dynasty&pg=PA143, 143, 9781136723667, This tradition was maintained even after the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty in favor of the Republic of China. However, the attempt by the Republicans to draft the history of the Qing was disrupted by the Chinese Civil War, which resulted in the political division of China into the People’s Republic of China on mainland China and the Republic of China on Taiwan.BOOK, Horner, Charles, Rising China and Its Postmodern Fate: Memories of Empire in a New Global Context, 2010,books.google.com/books?id=debJCgAAQBAJ&q=draft+history+of+qing+republic+of+china&pg=PA59, 59, 9780820335889,

End of dynastic rule

File:Puyi (1922).jpg|220px|thumb|right|A photograph of the Xuantong Emperor, widely considered to be the last legitimate monarch of China, taken in AD 1922.]]Dynastic rule in China collapsed in AD 1912 when the Republic of China superseded the Qing dynasty following the success of the Xinhai Revolution.BOOK, Moody, Alys, Ross, Stephen, Global Modernists on Modernism: An Anthology, 2020,books.google.com/books?id=DLjIDwAAQBAJ&q=china+dynastic+rule+four+millennia&pg=PA282, 282, 9781474242349, BOOK, Grosse, Christine, The Global Manager’s Guide to Cultural Literacy, 2019,books.google.com/books?id=5n-XDwAAQBAJ&q=xinhai+revolution+dynastic+rule&pg=PA71, 71, 9781527533875, While there were attempts after the Xinhai Revolution to reinstate dynastic rule in China, they were unsuccessful at consolidating their rule and gaining political legitimacy.During the Xinhai Revolution, there were numerous proposals advocating for the replacement of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty by a new dynasty of Han ethnicity. Kong Lingyi (), the Duke of Yansheng and a 76th-generation descendant of Confucius, was identified as a potential candidate for Chinese emperorship by Liang Qichao.BOOK, RoÅ¡ker, Jana, Suhadolnik, NataÅ¡a, Modernisation of Chinese Culture: Continuity and Change, 2014,books.google.com/books?id=ECJQBwAAQBAJ&q=put+a+descendant+of+Confucius+on+the+throne+Duke+Yansheng&pg=PA74, 74, 9781443867726, Meanwhile, gentry in Anhui and Hebei supported a restoration of the Ming dynasty under Zhu Yuxun (), the Marquis of Extended Grace.BOOK, Aldrich, M. A., The Search for a Vanishing Beijing: A Guide to China’s Capital Through the Ages, 2008,books.google.com/books?id=TMMvxX67FpIC&q=Marquis+of+Extended+Grace&pg=PA176, 176, 9789622097773, Both suggestions were ultimately rejected.The Empire of China (AD 1915–1916) proclaimed by Yuan Shikai sparked the National Protection War, resulting in the premature collapse of the regime 101 days later.BOOK, Schillinger, Nicholas, The Body and Military Masculinity in Late Qing and Early Republican China: The Art of Governing Soldiers, 2016,books.google.com/books?id=moZwDQAAQBAJ&q=legitimacy+of+yuan+shikai+empire+of+china&pg=PA176, 176, 9781498531696, The Manchu Restoration (AD 1917) was an unsuccessful attempt at reviving the Qing dynasty, lasting merely 11 days.BOOK, Hao, Shiyuan, China’s Solution to Its Ethno-national Issues, 2019,books.google.com/books?id=Qcm1DwAAQBAJ&q=puyi+restoration+1917&pg=PA51, 51, 9789813295193, Similarly, the Manchukuo (AD 1932–1945; monarchy since AD 1934), a puppet state of the Empire of Japan during World War II with limited diplomatic recognition, is not regarded as a legitimate regime.BOOK, Wells, Anne, The A to Z of World War II: The War Against Japan, 2009,books.google.com/books?id=_ptE9EGO_WUC&q=legitimacy+of+manchukuo&pg=PA167, 167, 9780810870260, Ergo, historians usually consider the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor on 12 February 1912 as the end of the Chinese dynastic system. Dynastic rule in China lasted almost four millennia.

Political legitimacy

File:Seal of Qing dynasty.svg|220px|thumb|right|Imperial seal of the Qing dynasty with “{{transl|zh|Dà QÄ«ng Dìguó zhÄ« xǐ}}” (; “Seal of the Great Qing Empire“) rendered in seal scriptseal scriptChina was politically divided during multiple periods in its history, with different regions ruled by different dynasties. These dynasties effectively functioned as separate states with their own court and political institutions. Political division existed during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, the Northern and Southern dynasties, and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods, among others.Relations between Chinese dynasties during periods of division often revolved around political legitimacy, which was derived from the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven.BOOK, Wu, Bin, Government Performance Management in China: Theory and Practice, 2019,books.google.com/books?id=dl6mDwAAQBAJ&q=political+legitimacy+of+imperial+china&pg=PA45, 44–45, 9789811382253, Dynasties ruled by ethnic Han would proclaim rival dynasties founded by other ethnicities as illegitimate, usually justified based on the concept of Hua–Yi distinction. On the other hand, many dynasties of non-Han origin saw themselves as the legitimate dynasty of China and often sought to portray themselves as the true inheritor of Chinese culture and history. Traditionally, only regimes deemed as “legitimate” or “orthodox” (; {{transl|zh|zhèngtÇ’ng}}) are termed {{transl|zh|cháo}} (; “dynasty“); “illegitimate” or “unorthodox” regimes are referred to as {{transl|zh|guó}} (; usually translated as either “state” or “kingdom“{{efn|name=“Kingdom“|The term “kingdom” is potentially misleading as not all rulers held the title of king. For example, all sovereigns of the Cao Wei held the title {{transl|zh|huángdì}} (; “emperor“) during their reign despite the realm being listed as one of the “Three Kingdoms”. Similarly, monarchs of the Western Qin, one of the “Sixteen Kingdoms”, bore the title {{transl|zh|wáng}} (; usually translated as “prince” in English writings).}}), even if these regimes were dynastic in nature.WEB,www.todayonhistory.com/people/201910/36697.html, 历史上的国和代到底有什么区别？, 18 November 2019, 15 January 2020,www.todayonhistory.com/people/201910/36697.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20200115035420www.todayonhistory.com/people/201910/36697.html,">web.archive.org/web/20200115035420www.todayonhistory.com/people/201910/36697.html, dead, Such legitimacy disputes existed during the following periods:

• Three KingdomsBOOK, Besio, Kimberly, Three Kingdoms and Chinese Culture, 2012,books.google.com/books?id=yhogHgTrzyEC&q=legitimacy+during+three+kingdoms&pg=PA64, 64, 9780791480496,
  • The Cao Wei, the Shu Han, and the Eastern Wu considered themselves legitimate while simultaneously denounced the rivaling claims of others.
  • The Emperor Xian of Han abdicated in favor of the Emperor Wen of Cao Wei; hence, the Cao Wei directly succeeded the Eastern Han in orthodox historiography.
  • The Western Jin accepted the Cao Wei as the legitimate dynasty of the Three Kingdoms period and claimed succession from it.
  • The Tang dynasty viewed the Cao Wei as the legitimate dynasty during this period, whereas the Southern Song scholar Zhu Xi proposed treating the Shu Han as legitimate.JOURNAL, Baaquie, Belal Ehsan, Wang, Qing-Hai, 2018, Chinese Dynasties and Modern China: Unification and Fragmentation, China and the World: Ancient and Modern Silk Road, 1, 1, 5, 10.1142/S2591729318500037, free, BOOK, Nosco, Peter, Confucianism and Tokugawa Culture, 1997,books.google.com/books?id=bcTE3TUssCAC&q=shu+han+continuation+of+the+legitimate+Han+dynasty+chu+hsi&pg=PA68, 68, 9780824818654,
• Eastern Jin and Sixteen KingdomsBOOK, Holcombe, Charles, A History of East Asia, 2017,books.google.com/books?id=kYKlDQAAQBAJ&q=legitimacy+during+eastern+jin+dynasty+sixteen+kingdoms&pg=PA63, 62–63, 9781107118737,
  • The Eastern Jin viewed itself as a continuation of the Western Jin, and thus legitimate.
  • Several of the Sixteen Kingdoms such as the Han-Zhao, the Later Zhao, and the Former Qin also claimed legitimacy.
• Northern and Southern dynastiesBOOK, Yang, Shao-yun, The Way of the Barbarians: Redrawing Ethnic Boundaries in Tang and Song China, 2019,books.google.com/books?id=O5K3DwAAQBAJ&q=legitimacy+during+northern+and+southern+dynasties&pg=PA63, 63, 9780295746012,
  • All dynasties during this period saw themselves as the legitimate representative of China; the Northern dynasties referred to their southern counterparts as “{{transl|zh|dÇŽoyí}}” (; “island dwelling barbarians“), while the Southern dynasties called their northern neighbors “{{transl|zh|suÇ’lÇ”}}” (; “barbarians with braids“).BOOK, Chen, Huaiyu, The Revival of Buddhist Monasticism in Medieval China, 2007,books.google.com/books?id=8qCNXQSG7mUC&q=daoyi+northern+and+southern+dynasties&pg=PA24, 24, 9780820486246, BOOK, Wakeman, Frederic, The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China, Volume 1, 1985,books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&q=suolu+barbarian&pg=PA446, 446, 9780520048041,
• Five Dynasties and Ten KingdomsBOOK, Liu, Pujiang, 正统与华夷：中国传统政治文化研究, 2017,books.google.com/books?id=YWZ0DwAAQBAJ&q=十国正统&pg=PT29, 9787101125795,
  • Having directly succeeded the Tang dynasty, the Later Liang considered itself to be a legitimate dynasty.
  • The Later Tang regarded itself as the restorer of the earlier Tang dynasty and rejected the legitimacy of its predecessor, the Later Liang.
  • The Later Jin succeeded the Later Tang and accepted it as a legitimate regime.
  • The Southern Tang was, for a period of time, considered the legitimate dynasty during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.
  • Since the Song dynasty, Chinese historiography has generally considered the Five Dynasties, as opposed to the contemporary Ten Kingdoms, to be legitimate.BOOK, Lee, Thomas, Education in Traditional China: A History, 2000,books.google.com/books?id=EvLACfv6egkC&q=five+dynasties+and+ten+kingdoms+legitimacy&pg=PA238, 238, 9004103635,
• Liao dynasty, Song dynasty, and Jin dynastyBOOK, Ng, On Cho, Wang, Edward, Mirroring the Past: The Writing And Use of History in Imperial China, 2005,books.google.com/books?id=wN99fsHpbTsC&q=legitimacy+during+song+liao+jin&pg=PA177, 177, 9780824829131,
  • Following the conquest of the Later Jin, the Liao dynasty claimed legitimacy and succession from itWEB,xw.qq.com/partner/hwbrowser/20191010A0H8X2/20191010A0H8X200?ADTAG=hwb&pgv_ref=hwb&appid=hwbrowser&ctype=news, 宋和辽究竟哪个才是正统王朝？, 18 November 2019, 31 July 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200731074611/https://xw.qq.com/partner/hwbrowser/20191010A0H8X2/20191010A0H8X200?ADTAG=hwb&pgv_ref=hwb&appid=hwbrowser&ctype=news, dead,
  • Both the Northern Song and Southern Song considered themselves to be the legitimate Chinese dynasty.
  • The Jin dynasty challenged the Song’s claim of legitimacy.
  • The succeeding Yuan dynasty recognized all three in addition to the Western Liao as legitimate Chinese dynasties, culminating in the composition of the History of Liao, the History of Song, and the History of Jin.Brook, Walt van Praag & Boltjes (2018). p. 52.BOOK, Biran, Michal, The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World, 2005,books.google.com/books?id=B934LaVBaz8C&q=qara+khitai+legitimate+dynasty+of+china, 93, 9780521842266, WEB,www.360doc.com/content/19/1105/08/60669552_871172581.shtml, 试论清人的辽金“正统观“——以辽宋金“三史分修“”各与正统“问题讨论为中心, 18 November 2019,
• Ming dynasty and Northern YuanBOOK, Zhang, Feng, Chinese Hegemony: Grand Strategy and International Institutions in East Asian History, 2015,books.google.com/books?id=ynr8CAAAQBAJ&q=legitimacy+during+ming+northern+yuan&pg=PA126, 126, 9780804795043,
  • The Ming dynasty recognized the preceding Yuan dynasty as a legitimate Chinese dynasty, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Yuan, thus considering the Northern Yuan as illegitimate.
  • Northern Yuan rulers maintained the dynastic name “Great Yuan” and claimed traditional Han-style titles continuously until AD 1388 or AD 1402; Han-style titles were restored on several occasions thereafter for brief periods, notably during the reigns of Taisun Khan, Choros Esen, and Dayan Khan.JOURNAL, Okada, Hidehiro, 2002, Dayan Khan as a Yuan Emperor : The Political Legitimacy in 15th Century Mongolia,www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/befeo_0336-1519_1994_num_81_1_2245.pdf, Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrême-Orient, 81, 53, 7 March 2022, {{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
  • The historian Rashipunsug argued that the Northern Yuan had succeeded the legitimacy from the Yuan dynasty; the Qing dynasty, which later defeated and annexed the Northern Yuan, inherited this legitimacy, thus rendering the Ming illegitimate.Brook, Walt van Praag & Boltjes (2018). p. 54.
• Qing dynasty and Southern MingBOOK, Chan, Wing-ming, East Asian History, Issues 19-20, 2000,books.google.com/books?id=yH8wAQAAIAAJ&q=legitimacy+of+southern+ming+and+qing, 30,
  • The Qing dynasty recognized the preceding Ming dynasty as legitimate, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Ming, thus refuting the claimed legitimacy of the Southern Ming.
  • The Southern Ming continued to claim legitimacy until its eventual defeat by the Qing.
  • The Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan denounced the Qing dynasty as illegitimate.
  • The Joseon dynasty of Korea and the Later Lê dynasty of Vietnam had at various times considered the Southern Ming, instead of the Qing dynasty, as legitimate.BOOK, Fang, Weigui, Modern Notions of Civilization and Culture in China, 2019,books.google.com/books?id=HheJDwAAQBAJ&q=legitimacy+during+Qing+southern+ming&pg=PA30, 30, 9789811335587, BOOK, Baldanza, Kathlene, Ming China and Vietnam, 2016,books.google.com/books?id=6u6xCwAAQBAJ&q=legitimacy+during+Qing+southern+ming&pg=PA206, 206, 9781107124240,
  • The Tokugawa shogunate of Japan did not accept the legitimacy of the Qing dynasty and instead saw itself as the rightful representative of {{transl|zh|Huá}} (; “China“); this narrative served as the basis of Japanese texts such as ChÅ«chō Jijitsu and Kai Hentai.BOOK, Davis, Bret, The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Philosophy, 2019,books.google.com/books?id=kmCpDwAAQBAJ&q=Ch%C5%ABch%C5%8D+jijitsu+imperial+japan+central+dynasty+china&pg=PA294, 294, 9780199945726, BOOK, Ng, Wai-ming, Imagining China in Tokugawa Japan: Legends, Classics, and Historical Terms, 2019,books.google.com/books?id=g4KKDwAAQBAJ&q=kai+hentai+qing+dynasty&pg=PR17, xvii, 9781438473086, BOOK, Zhang, Xiaoling, 從現代到後現代的自我追尋：夏目漱石與村上春樹的比較研究, 2014,books.google.com/books?id=7fmaBQAAQBAJ&q=%E6%B8%85%E6%9C%9D%E4%B8%8D%E6%98%AF%E6%AD%A3%E7%B5%B1+%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC+%E8%8F%AF%E5%A4%B7%E8%AE%8A%E6%85%8B&pg=PA224, 224, 9789863263012,

Traditionally, periods of disunity often resulted in heated debates among officials and historians over which prior dynasties could and should be considered orthodox, given that it was politically imperative for a dynasty to present itself as being linked in an unbroken lineage of moral and political authority back to ancient times. However, the Northern Song statesman Ouyang Xiu propounded that such orthodoxy existed in a state of limbo during fragmented periods and was restored after political unification was achieved.BOOK, Wu, Huaiqi, An Historical Sketch of Chinese Historiography, 2018,books.google.com/books?id=7QdGDwAAQBAJ&q=orthodox+northern+and+southern+dynasties&pg=PA321, 322, 9783662562536, From this perspective, the Song dynasty possessed legitimacy by virtue of its ability to end the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period despite not having succeeded the orthodoxy from the Later Zhou. Similarly, Ouyang considered the concept of orthodoxy to be in oblivion during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern dynasties periods.Traditionally, as most Chinese historiographical sources uphold the idea of unilineal dynastic succession, only one dynasty could be considered orthodox at any given time. Most historical sources consider the legitimate line of succession to be as follows:{{block indent|1=Xia dynasty → Shang dynasty → Western Zhou → Eastern Zhou → Qin dynasty → Western Han → Eastern Han → Cao Wei → Western Jin → Eastern Jin → Liu Song → Southern Qi → Liang dynasty → Chen dynasty → Sui dynasty → Tang dynasty → Later Liang → Later Tang → Later Jin → Later Han → Later Zhou → Northern Song → Southern Song → Yuan dynasty → Ming dynasty → Qing dynasty}}These historical legitimacy disputes are similar to the modern competing claims of legitimacy by the People’s Republic of China based in Beijing and the Republic of China based in Taipei. Both regimes formally adhere to the One-China principle and claim to be the sole legitimate representative of the whole of China.BOOK, Hudson, Christopher, The China Handbook, 2014,books.google.com/books?id=hm63AwAAQBAJ&q=prc+and+roc+legitimacy&pg=PA59, 59, 9781134269662,

Agnatic lineages

{{multiple image }}There were several groups of Chinese dynasties that were ruled by families with patrilineal relations, yet due to various reasons these regimes are considered to be separate dynasties and given distinct retroactive names for historiographical purpose. Such conditions as differences in their official dynastic title and fundamental changes having occurred to their rule would necessitate nomenclatural distinction in academia, despite these ruling clans having shared common ancestral origins.Additionally, numerous other dynasties claimed descent from earlier dynasties as a calculated political move to obtain or enhance their legitimacy, even if such claims were unfounded.The agnatic relations of the following groups of Chinese dynasties are typically recognized by historians:

• Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou
  • The Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou were ruled by the House of Ji; they are collectively known as the Zhou dynastyBOOK, Law, Eugene, Best of China, 2004,books.google.com/books?id=hUb_BQNkXdQC&q=western+Zhou+eastern+zhou+zhou+dynasty&pg=PA11, 11, 9787508504292,
  • The founder of the Eastern Zhou, the King Ping of Zhou, was a son of the last Western Zhou ruler, the King You of Zhou
• Western Han, Eastern Han, Shu Han, and Liu Song
  • The Western Han, the Eastern Han, the Shu Han, and the Liu Song were ruled by the House of Liu; the first two of which are collectively known as the Han dynastyBOOK, Li, Xiaobing, China at War: An Encyclopedia, 2012,books.google.com/books?id=R7qNuIJJsNEC&q=han+dynasty+divided+into+two+periods&pg=PA485, 485, 9781598844160,
  • The first emperor of the Eastern Han, the Emperor Guangwu of Han, was a ninth-generation descendant of the Western Han founder, the Emperor Gao of Han; he was also a seventh-generation descendant of the sixth Western Han monarch, the Emperor Jing of Han
  • The founder of the Shu Han, the Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han, was also descended from the Emperor Jing of Han
  • The Book of Song states that the first Liu Song ruler, the Emperor Wu of Liu Song, was a male-line descendant of a younger brother of the Emperor Gao of Han, the Prince Yuan of Chu
• Western Jin and Eastern Jin
  • The Western Jin and the Eastern Jin were ruled by the House of Sima; they are collectively known as the Jin dynastyBOOK, Mao, Zengyin, 三字经与中国民俗画, 2005,books.google.com/books?id=o_vtGt6L4GQC&q=jin+dynasty+western+jin+eastern+jin&pg=PP90, 90, 9787508507996,
  • The Eastern Jin founder, the Emperor Yuan of Jin, was a great-grandson of the Emperor Xuan of Jin; he was also a grandson of the Prince Wu of Langya and a son of the Prince Gong of Langya
• Han-Zhao and Hu Xia
  • The Han-Zhao and the Hu Xia were ruled by the House of Luandi (later renamed the House of Liu and the House of Helian respectively)
  • The Han-Zhao founder, the Emperor Guangwen of Han-Zhao, and the Hu Xia founder, the Emperor Wulie of Hu Xia, were descended from Liu Qiangqu and Liu Qubei respectively; according to the History of the Northern Dynasties, Liu Qiangqu and Liu Qubei were brothers
• Former Yan, Later Yan, and Southern Yan
  • The Former Yan, the Later Yan, and the Southern Yan were ruled by the House of Murong
  • The founder of the Later Yan, the Emperor Chengwu of Later Yan, was a son of the Former Yan founder, the Emperor Wenming of Former Yan
  • The first monarch of the Southern Yan, the Emperor Xianwu of Southern Yan, was also a son of the Emperor Wenming of Former Yan
• Northern Wei, Southern Liang, Eastern Wei, and Western Wei
  • The Northern Wei, the Southern Liang, the Eastern Wei, and the Western Wei were ruled by the House of Tuoba (later renamed the House of Yuan and the House of Tufa respectively)
  • The Northern Wei founder, the Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei, and the Southern Liang founder, the Prince Wu of Southern Liang, were respectively descended from the sons of the Emperor Shengwu of Northern Wei, the Emperor Shenyuan of Northern Wei and Tufa PiguBOOK, Wang, Yong, 东亚文化环流十讲, 2018,books.google.com/books?id=ZhRhEAAAQBAJ&dq=%E7%A7%83%E5%8F%91+%E6%8B%93%E8%B7%8B%E6%B0%8F%E5%90%8C%E6%BA%90+%E7%A7%83%E5%8F%91%E5%8C%B9%E5%AD%A4&pg=PA27, 27, 9787313200105,
  • The only ruler of the Eastern Wei, the Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei, was a great-grandson of the seventh emperor of the Northern Wei, the Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei
  • The Western Wei founder, the Emperor Wen of Western Wei, was a grandson of the Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei
• Southern Qi and Liang dynasty
  • The Southern Qi and the Liang dynasty were ruled by the House of Xiao
  • The founder of the Liang dynasty, the Emperor Wu of Liang, was a son of the Emperor Wen of Liang who was a distant cousin of the Southern Qi founder, the Emperor Gao of Southern Qi
• Western Liang and Tang dynasty
  • The Western Liang and the Tang dynasty were ruled by the House of Li
  • The founder of the Tang dynasty, the Emperor Gaozu of Tang, was a seventh-generation descendant of the Western Liang founder, the Prince Wuzhao of Western Liang
• Later Han and Northern Han
  • The Later Han and the Northern Han were ruled by the House of Liu
  • The first ruler of the Northern Han, the Emperor Shizu of Northern Han, was a younger brother of the Later Han founder, the Emperor Gaozu of Later Han
• Liao dynasty and Western Liao
  • The Liao dynasty and the Western Liao were ruled by the House of Yelü
  • The Western Liao founder, the Emperor Dezong of Western Liao, was an eighth-generation descendant of the first emperor of the Liao dynasty, the Emperor Taizu of Liao
• Northern Song and Southern Song
  • The Northern Song and the Southern Song were ruled by the House of Zhao; they are collectively known as the Song dynastyBOOK, Wang, Shoufa, 中国政治制度史, 2002,books.google.com/books?id=zGtMAAAAIAAJ&q=宋朝+北宋+南宋, 80, 9787209030762,
  • The first ruler of the Southern Song, the Emperor Gaozong of Song, was a son of the eighth Northern Song monarch, the Emperor Huizong of Song; he was also a younger brother of the last Northern Song emperor, the Emperor Qinzong of Song
• Yuan dynasty and Northern Yuan
  • The Yuan dynasty and the Northern Yuan were ruled by the House of Borjigin
  • The Emperor Huizong of Yuan was both the last emperor of the Yuan dynasty and the first ruler of the Northern Yuan
• Ming dynasty and Southern Ming
  • The Ming dynasty and the Southern Ming were ruled by the House of Zhu
  • The Southern Ming founder, the Hongguang Emperor, was a grandson of the 14th emperor of the Ming dynasty, the Wanli Emperor
• Later Jin and Qing dynasty
  • The Later Jin and the Qing dynasty were ruled by the House of Aisin Gioro
  • The Emperor Taizong of Qing was both the last Later Jin khan and the first emperor of the Qing dynasty

Classification

File:Chinesisches Reich LOC 2011585250.jpg|220px|thumb|right|A German map of the Chinese Empire during the height of the Qing dynastyQing dynasty

Central Plain dynasties

The Central Plain is a vast area on the lower reaches of the Yellow River which formed the cradle of Chinese civilization. “Central Plain dynasties” (; {{transl|zh|Zhōngyuán wángcháo}}) refer to dynasties of China that had their capital cities situated within the Central Plain.BOOK, Li, Xiaobing, Shan, Patrick, Ethnic China: Identity, Assimilation, and Resistance, 2015,books.google.com/books?id=iB0oCwAAQBAJ&q=zhongyuan+wangchao&pg=PA5, 5, 9781498507295, This term could refer to dynasties of both Han and non-Han ethnic origins.

Unified dynasties

“Unified dynasties” (; {{transl|zh|dàyÄ«tÇ’ng wángcháo}}) refer to dynasties of China, regardless of their ethnic origin, that achieved the unification of China proper. “China proper” is a region generally regarded as the traditional heartland of the Han people, and is not equivalent to the term “China”. Imperial dynasties that had attained the unification of China proper may be known as the “Chinese Empire” or the “Empire of China” (; {{transl|zh|Zhōnghuá Dìguó}}).WEB,www.dictionary.com/browse/chinese-empire, Chinese Empire, 9 January 2020, WEB,www.360kuai.com/pc/9f72d57dccdee86f4?cota=3&kuai_so=1&sign=360_7bc3b157, 经常提到的波斯帝国，那你知道波斯第一、第二、第三帝国吗？, 13 January 2020, {{efn|name=“ChineseEmpire1“|As proposed by scholars such as Fu Sinian and Ray Huang, there were three major Chinese empires historically. The “First Chinese Empire” () included the Qin dynasty, the Western Han, the Eastern Han, the Cao Wei, the Western Jin, the Eastern Jin, the Liu Song, the Southern Qi, the Liang dynasty, and the Chen dynasty. The “Second Chinese Empire” () encompassed the Northern Wei, the Western Wei, the Northern Zhou, the Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty, the Later Liang, the Later Tang, the Later Jin, the Later Han, the Later Zhou, the Northern Song, and the Southern Song. The “Third Chinese Empire” () consisted of the Liao dynasty, the Jin dynasty, the Yuan dynasty, the Ming dynasty, and the Qing dynasty. Accordingly, the terms “Chinese Empire” and “Empire of China” need not necessarily refer to imperial dynasties that had unified China proper.}}The concept of “great unity” or “grand unification” (; {{transl|zh|dàyÄ«tÇ’ng}}) was first mentioned in the Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals that was supposedly authored by the Qi scholar Gongyang Gao.BOOK, Feng, Tianyu, Yang, Hua, 中国文化发展轨迹, 2000,books.google.com/books?id=PY7kAAAAMAAJ&q=大一统+最早, 111, 9787208034600, BOOK, Jia, Bingqiang, Zhu, Xiaohong, 图说治水与中华文明, 2015,books.google.com/books?id=UWWADwAAQBAJ&q=大一统+公羊传+隐公元年&pg=PT60, 9787517031246, BOOK, Wang, Xilong, 历史文化探研──兰州大学历史文化学院专门史论文集, 2009,books.google.com/books?id=boOjDwAAQBAJ&q=大一统+公羊传+最早&pg=PT785, 9787542114525, Other prominent figures like Confucius and Mencius also elaborated on this concept in their respective works.BOOK, Yang, Faxing, 世界伟人传记丛书（上）, 2015,books.google.com/books?id=iqo3CgAAQBAJ&q=大一统+孔子&pg=PT969, BOOK, Gao, Qi, 传统文化与治国理政, 2018,books.google.com/books?id=mA61DwAAQBAJ&q=大一统+孟子&pg=PT200, 9787101127669, Historians typically consider the following dynasties to have unified China proper: the Qin dynasty, the Western Han, the Xin dynasty, the Eastern Han, the Western Jin, the Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty, the Wu Zhou, the Northern Song, the Yuan dynasty, the Ming dynasty, and the Qing dynasty.WEB,kknews.cc/history/p5qxl3e.html, 中国历史上十个大一统王朝，其中四个国祚不过百年, 18 November 2019, WEB,kknews.cc/history/ygblbka.html, 我国历史上这两大王朝均是大一统王朝，却教科书上却极少被提及, 24 January 2020, The status of the Northern Song as a unified dynasty is disputed among historians as the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun were partially administered by the contemporaneous Liao dynasty while the Western Xia exercised partial control over Hetao; the Northern Song, in this sense, did not truly achieve the unification of China proper.BOOK, Graff, David, Higham, Robin, A Military History of China, 2012,books.google.com/books?id=wKpj1YfXfHEC&q=A+Military+History+of+China+sixteen+prefectures+song+emperor&pg=PA70, 70–71, 978-0813140674,

Infiltration dynasties and conquest dynasties

According to the historian and sinologist Karl August Wittfogel, dynasties of China founded by non-Han peoples that ruled parts or all of China proper could be classified into two types, depending on the means by which the ruling ethnic groups had entered China proper.JOURNAL, Zhang, Fan, 2018, Characteristics of the Yuan dynasty: Reflections on several issues from Mongol Yuan history,www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00094633.2018.1466564?scroll=top&needAccess=true&journalCode=mcsh20, Chinese Studies in History, 51, 1, 52, 10.1080/00094633.2018.1466564, 165215790, 2 January 2021, “Infiltration dynasties” or “dynasties of infiltration” (; {{transl|zh|shèntòu wángcháo}}) refer to Chinese dynasties founded by non-Han ethnicities that tended towards accepting Han culture and assimilating into the Han-dominant society. For instance, the Han-Zhao and the Northern Wei, established by the Xiongnu and Xianbei ethnicities respectively, are considered infiltration dynasties of China.“Conquest dynasties” or “dynasties of conquest” (; {{transl|zh|zhÄ“ngfú wángcháo}}) refer to dynasties of China established by non-Han peoples that tended towards resisting Han culture and preserving the identities of the ruling ethnicities.BOOK, van de Ven, Hans, Warfare in Chinese History, 2000,books.google.com/books?id=IXKkCXDvYFYC&q=conquest+dynasties&pg=PA77, 77, 9004117741, For example, the Liao dynasty and the Yuan dynasty, ruled by the Khitan and Mongol peoples respectively, are considered conquest dynasties of China.These terms remain sources of controversy among scholars who believe that Chinese history should be analyzed and understood from a multiethnic and multicultural perspective.BOOK, Bulag, Uradyn, Collaborative Nationalism: The Politics of Friendship on China’s Mongolian Frontier, 2010,books.google.com/books?id=sQLiMYUk-nIC&q=conquest+dynasty+nationalist&pg=PA56, 56–57, 9781442204331,

Naming convention

Official nomenclature

It was customary for Chinese monarchs to adopt an official name for the realm, known as the {{transl|zh|guóhào}} (; “name of the state“), upon the establishment of a dynasty.Wilkinson (2000). pp. 13–14.BOOK, Zhu, Fayuan, Wu, Qixing, 中国文化ABC, 2000,books.google.com/books?id=aVp_DwAAQBAJ&q=中国朝代国号&pg=PT195, 9787210045892, During the rule of a dynasty, its {{transl|zh|guóhào}} functioned as the formal name of the state, both internally and for diplomatic purposes.The formal name of Chinese dynasties was usually derived from one of the following sources:

• The name of the ruling tribe or tribal confederationWEB,www.diyifanwen.com/tool/lishichaodai/126900432717083.htm, 历代王朝国号的分类, 18 November 2019, WEB,news.ifeng.com/history/1/200709/0929_335_243492.shtml, 名不正则言不顺：中国各朝代名称、国号的由来, 18 November 2019,
  • e.g., the Xia dynasty took its name from its ruling class, the Xia tribal confederation
• The noble title held by the dynastic founder prior to the founding of the dynasty
  • e.g., the Emperor Wu of Chen adopted the dynastic name “Chen” from his pre-imperial title “Prince of Chen” upon the establishment of the Chen dynastyWEB,kknews.cc/history/2la3op9.html, 唐朝的皇帝姓李，为什么不叫李朝而叫唐朝？, 18 November 2019,
• The name of a historical state that occupied the same geographical location as the new dynastyWEB,new.qq.com/omn/20180701/20180701A024FI.html, 先秦时期的诸侯国名，哪些最受后世的青睐？, 18 November 2019, 31 July 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200731132305/https://new.qq.com/omn/20180701/20180701A024FI.html, dead,
  • e.g., the Former Yan was officially named “Yan” based on the ancient State of Yan located in the same region
• The name of a previous dynasty from which the new dynasty claimed descent or succession from, even if such familial link was questionable
  • e.g., the Emperor Taizu of Later Zhou officially proclaimed the Later Zhou with the official title “Zhou” as he claimed ancestry from Guo Shu, a royal of the Zhou dynastyWEB,www.8794.cn/lishi/shijian/55356.html, 后周皇帝列表及简介 后周太祖世宗恭帝简介 后周是怎么灭亡的, 18 November 2019,
• A term with auspicious or other significant connotations
  • e.g., the Yuan dynasty was officially the “Great Yuan”, a name derived from a clause in the Classic of Changes, “{{transl|zh|dà zāi Qián Yuán}}” (; “Great is the Heavenly and Primal“)BOOK, Hung, Hing Ming, From the Mongols to the Ming Dynasty: How a Begging Monk Became Emperor of China, Zhu Yuan Zhang, 2016,books.google.com/books?id=rf8gDAAAQBAJ&q=yuan+dynasty+da+zai+qian+yuan&pg=PA13, 13, 9781628941524,

There were instances whereby the official name was changed during the reign of a dynasty. For example, the dynasty known retroactively as Southern Han initially used the name “Yue”, only to be renamed to “Han” subsequently.WEB,www.xinhuanet.com/local/2017-01/04/c_129431196.htm, 南越国与南汉国, 18 November 2019, 31 July 2020,www.xinhuanet.com/local/2017-01/04/c_129431196.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20200731132304www.xinhuanet.com/local/2017-01/04/c_129431196.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20200731132304www.xinhuanet.com/local/2017-01/04/c_129431196.htm, dead, The official title of several dynasties bore the character “{{transl|zh|dà}}” (; “great“). In Yongzhuang Xiaopin by the Ming historian Zhu Guozhen, it was claimed that the first dynasty to do so was the Yuan dynasty.BOOK, Hu, Axiang, Song, Yanmei, 中国国号的故事, 2008,books.google.com/books?id=kDUzAQAAIAAJ&q=国号加大字,始于胡元%E3%80%82, 171, 9787807135999, WEB,www.jianshu.com/p/a6fffb05cb05, 明朝为何定国号为“大明“，绝大部分人只知道五个原因中的一个, 6 January 2020, However, several sources like the History of Liao and the History of Jin compiled by the Yuan historian Toqto’a revealed that the official dynastic name of some earlier dynasties such as the Liao and the Jin also contained the character “{{transl|zh|dà}}”.WEB,www.iqh.net.cn/info.asp?column_id=478, 辽朝国号考释, 6 January 2020, 31 July 2020,www.iqh.net.cn/info.asp?column_id=478," title="web.archive.org/web/20200731132305www.iqh.net.cn/info.asp?column_id=478,">web.archive.org/web/20200731132305www.iqh.net.cn/info.asp?column_id=478, dead, BOOK, Chan, Hok-lam, 金宋史論叢, 2003,books.google.com/books?id=t21yghJHIpEC&q=大金+金史&pg=PA4, 4–5, 9789629960971, It was also common for officials, subjects, or tributary states of a particular dynasty to include the term “{{transl|zh|dà}}” (or an equivalent term in other languages) when referring to this dynasty as a form of respect, even if the official dynastic name did not include it. For instance, The Chronicles of Japan referred to the Tang dynasty as “{{transl|ja|Dai Tō}}” (; “Great Tang“) despite its dynastic name being simply “Tang”.While all dynasties of China sought to associate their respective realm with {{transl|zh|Zhōngguó}} (; “Central State”; usually translated as “Middle Kingdom” or “China” in English texts) and various other names of China, none of these regimes officially used such names as their dynastic title.BOOK, Fogel, Joshua, The Cultural Dimensions of Sino-Japanese Relations: Essays on the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, 2015,books.google.com/books?id=krq5CAAAQBAJ&q=It+was+the+ideal+of+every+dynasty+throughout+Chinese+history%2C+even+when+the+leaders+may+not+have+been+conscious+of+it%2C+to+make+their+dynastic+name+completely+identifiable+with+%E2%80%9CChina.%E2%80%9D&pg=PA66, 66, 9781317457671, BOOK, Xie, Xuanjun, 士商工农──等级制度构建文明社会, 2016,books.google.com/books?id=o-OPDAAAQBAJ&q=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E4%B8%8D%E6%98%AF%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B7%E6%A6%82%E5%BF%B5&pg=PA379, 379, 9781329980136, Although the Qing dynasty explicitly identified their state with and employed “{{transl|zh|Zhōngguó}}“—and its Manchu equivalent ”Dulimbai Gurun” ({{ManchuSibeUnicode|lang=mnc|ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ|style=text-align:left}})—in official capacity in numerous international treaties beginning with the Treaty of Nerchinsk dated AD 1689, its dynastic name had remained the “Great Qing”.BOOK, Wang, Yuanchong, Remaking the Chinese Empire: Manchu-Korean Relations, 1616–1911, 2018,books.google.com/books?id=QF9oCgAAQBAJ&q=zhongguo+geographical+political+cultural+concept&pg=PA71, 52–53, 9781501730511, BOOK, Wang, Fei-Ling, The China Order: Centralia, World Empire, and the Nature of Chinese Power, 2017,books.google.com/books?id=chUwDwAAQBAJ&q=qing+dynasty+zhongguo+dulimbai+gurun+international+treaties&pg=PA11, 11, 9781438467504, “{{transl|zh|Zhōngguó}}”, which has become nearly synonymous with “China” in modern times, is a concept with geographical, political, and cultural connotations.BOOK, Kang, Jung In, Western-Centrism and Contemporary Korean Political Thought, 2015,books.google.com/books?id=QF9oCgAAQBAJ&q=zhongguo+geographical+political+cultural+concept&pg=PA71, 71, 9780739180990, The adoption of {{transl|zh|guóhào}}, as well as the importance assigned to it, had promulgated within the Sinosphere. Notably, rulers of Vietnam and Korea also declared {{transl|zh|guóhào}} for their respective realm.

Retroactive nomenclature

In Chinese historiography, historians generally do not refer to dynasties directly by their official name. Instead, historiographical names, which were most commonly derived from their official name, are used. For instance, the Sui dynasty is known as such because its formal name was “Sui”. Likewise, the Jin dynasty was officially the “Great Jin”.When more than one dynasty shared the same Chinese character(s) as their formal name, as was common in Chinese history, prefixes are retroactively applied to dynastic names by historians in order to distinguish between these similarly-named regimes.WEB,kknews.cc/history/bb4gb6.html, 为何中国古代的一些朝代前要加上“东西南北“，比如“西汉“呢？, 18 November 2019, Frequently used prefixes include:

• Cardinal direction
  • “Northern” (; {{transl|zh|bÄ›i}}): e.g., Northern Qi, Northern Yuan
  • “Southern” (; {{transl|zh|nán}}): e.g., Southern Yan, Southern Tang
  • “Eastern” (; {{transl|zh|dōng}}): e.g., Eastern Jin, Eastern Wei
  • “Western” (; {{transl|zh|xÄ«}}): e.g., Western Liang, Western Liao
• Sequence
  • “Former“{{efn|name=“Prefix1“|“Anterior” is employed in some sources in place of “Former”.BOOK, Christopher, James, Conflict in the Far East, 1970,books.google.com/books?id=KdkUAAAAIAAJ&q=anterior+han+dynasty&pg=PA5, 5, BOOK, Deghati, Reza, Giès, Jacques, Feugère, Laure, Coutin, André, Painted Buddhas of Xinjiang: Hidden Treasures from the Silk Road, 2002,books.google.com/books?id=IS7rAAAAMAAJ&q=anterior+qin+dynasty, 43, 9781588860279, }} (; {{transl|zh|qián}}): e.g., Former Qin, Former Shu
  • “Later“{{efn|name=“Prefix2“|“Latter” or “Posterior” is employed in some sources in place of “Later”.BOOK, Chang, Chun-shu, The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Frontier, immigration, and empire in Han China, 130 B.C.–A.D. 157, 2007,books.google.com/books?id=IpP5uMHSQ0AC&q=latter+dynasty&pg=PA180, 179–180, 9780472115341, BOOK, Swope, Kenneth, The Military Collapse of China’s Ming Dynasty, 1618–44, 2014,books.google.com/books?id=WRaoAgAAQBAJ&q=latter+jin+dynasty&pg=PA223, 223, 9781134462094, BOOK, Dardess, John, More Than the Great Wall: The Northern Frontier and Ming National Security, 1368–1644, 2019,books.google.com/books?id=t8y4DwAAQBAJ&q=latter+jin+dynasty&pg=PA512, 512, 9781538135112, BOOK, Wang, Guo’an, A Handbook for 1,000 Basic Chinese Characters, 2007,books.google.com/books?id=c9NNC3UjRTwC&q=posterior+zhou+dynasty&pg=PA828, 828, 9789629962838, BOOK, Zhao, Ziqiang, 私家藏宝：粤桂港澳台私人藏品珍集, 2001,books.google.com/books?id=YsbQaTDWseYC&q=posterior+zhou+dynasty&pg=PA7, 7, 9787806740989, }} (; {{transl|zh|hòu}}): e.g., Later Zhao, Later Han
• Surname of the ruling family
  • e.g., Wu Zhou, Ma Chu
• Other types of prefixes
  • e.g., Shu Han (the prefix “Shu” is a reference to the realm’s geographical location at Sichuan), Hu Xia (the prefix “Hu”, meaning “barbarian”, refers to the dynasty’s ethnic Xiongnu origin)

A dynasty could be referred to by more than one retroactive name in Chinese historiography, albeit some are more widely used than others. For instance, the Western Han is also known as the “Former Han”, and the Yang Wu is also called the “Southern Wu”.BOOK, Loewe, Michael, The Government of the Qin and Han Empires: 221 BCE – 220 CE, 2006,books.google.com/books?id=wcpgDwAAQBAJ&q=western+han+former+han&pg=PR6, vi, 9781603840576, WEB,www.qulishi.com/article/201903/324855.html, 五代十国时期的十国政权之一：南吴的发展史, 8 August 2020, Scholars usually make a historiographical distinction for dynasties whose rule were interrupted. For example, the Song dynasty is divided into the Northern Song and the Southern Song, with the Jingkang Incident as the dividing line; the original “Song” founded by the Emperor Taizu of Song was therefore differentiated from the “Song” restored under the Emperor Gaozong of Song.BOOK, Chan, Chi Chuen, Li, William, Chiu, Amy, The Psychology of Chinese Gambling: A Cultural and Historical Perspective, 2019,books.google.com/books?id=CpuHDwAAQBAJ&q=jingkang+incident+northern+song+southern+song&pg=PA21, 21, 9789811334863, In such cases, the regime had collapsed, only to be re-established; a nomenclatural distinction between the original regime and the new regime is thus necessary for historiographical purpose. Major exceptions to this historiographical practice include the Western Qin, the Southern Liang, and the Tang dynasty; the first two were interrupted by the Later Qin, while the continuity of the latter was broken by the Wu Zhou.WEB,www.xixik.com/content/ef840f0c74a814ec, 先秦、秦国、秦朝、前秦、后秦、西秦是什么关系？, 4 August 2020, BOOK, Lü, Simian, 两晋南北朝史（第一册）, 2020,books.google.com/books?id=X-8LEAAAQBAJ&dq=404%E5%B9%B4+%E5%82%89%E6%AA%80%E5%8E%BB%E5%B9%B4%E5%8F%B7%E3%80%81%E7%BD%A2%E5%B0%9A%E4%B9%A6%E4%B8%9E%E9%83%8E%E5%AE%98+%E9%99%8D%E4%BA%8E%E5%90%8E%E7%A7%A6&pg=PT228, 9787999131410, WEB,kknews.cc/history/bz3g6z6.html, 汉分东西汉因为中间有新莽为什么唐朝中间有武周却不分东西唐, 4 August 2020, In Chinese sources, the term “dynasty” (; {{transl|zh|cháo}}) is usually omitted when referencing dynasties that have prefixes in their historiographical names. Such a practice is sometimes adopted in English usage, even though the inclusion of the word “dynasty” is also widely seen in English scholarly writings. For example, the Northern Zhou is also sometimes referred to as the “Northern Zhou dynasty”.BOOK, Yuan, Haiwang, This is China: The First 5,000 Years, 2010,books.google.com/books?id=8GpQEIU0PGkC&q=northern+zhou+dynasty&pg=PA40, 40, 9781933782768, Often, scholars would refer to a specific Chinese dynasty by attaching the word “China” after the dynastic name. For instance, “Tang China” refers to the Chinese state under the rule of the Tang dynasty and the corresponding historical era.BOOK, Hammond, Kenneth, Beezley, William, DeBlasi, Anthony, MacLachlan, Colin, The Human Tradition in Premodern China, 2002,books.google.com/books?id=hXgKLvo1LicC&q=tang+china&pg=PA77, 77, 9780842029599,

Territorial extent

File:China Dynasties.gif|thumb|220px|Approximate territories controlled by the various dynasties and states throughout Chinese history, juxtaposed with the modern Chinese borders.]]While the earliest orthodox Chinese dynasties were established along the Yellow River and the Yangtze in China proper, numerous Chinese dynasties later expanded beyond the region to encompass other territorial domains.BOOK, Brødsgaard, Kjeld, Hainan – State, Society, and Business in a Chinese Province, 2008,books.google.com/books?id=t6t9AgAAQBAJ&q=hainan+han+dynasty&pg=PA11, 11, 9781134045471, BOOK, Wong, Koon-kwai, Hong Kong, Macau and the Pearl River Delta: A Geographical Survey, 2009,books.google.com/books?id=NR4qAwAAQBAJ&q=chinese+dynasty+macau&pg=PA242, 241–242, 9789882004757, BOOK, Zhang, Wei Bin, Hong Kong: The Pearl Made of British Mastery and Chinese Docile-diligence, 2006,books.google.com/books?id=hwPUGWBTsX4C&q=chinese+dynasty+hong+kong&pg=PA3, 3, 9781594546006, BOOK, Hughes, Christopher, Taiwan and Chinese Nationalism: National Identity and Status in International Society, 2013,books.google.com/books?id=fVX2aAuOt1EC&q=taiwan+qing+dynasty&pg=PA21, 21, 9781134727551, BOOK, Hsu, Cho-yun, China: A New Cultural History, 2012,books.google.com/books?id=a2_GQpLPPl8C&q=Manchuria+qing+dynasty&pg=PA421, 421, 9780231528184, BOOK, Lockard, Craig, Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History, 2020,books.google.com/books?id=xW7LDwAAQBAJ&q=tang+dynasty+rule+siberia&pg=PA260, 260, 9780357365472, BOOK, Gan, Chunsong, A Concise Reader of Chinese Culture, 2019,books.google.com/books?id=RR2nDwAAQBAJ&q=tang+dynasty+aral+sea&pg=PA24, 24, 9789811388675, BOOK, Westad, Odd, Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750, 2012,books.google.com/books?id=uL8NoXZtyxMC&q=sakhalin, 11, 9780465029365, BOOK, Sanders, Alan, Historical Dictionary of Mongolia, 2003,books.google.com/books?id=Z5umNthHltQC&q=mongolia+qing+dynasty&pg=PR55, v, 9780810866010, BOOK, Paige, Jeffrey, Agrarian Revolution, 1978,books.google.com/books?id=iuROQYHKmL8C&q=vietnam+chinese+rule&pg=PA278, 278, 9780029235508, BOOK, Clarke, Michael, Xinjiang and China’s Rise in Central Asia - A History, 2011,books.google.com/books?id=jRhHphtBg-QC&q=xinjiang+tang+dynasty&pg=PA16, 16, 9781136827068, BOOK, Kshetry, Gopal, Foreigners in Japan: A Historical Perspective, 2008,books.google.com/books?id=OVSMAAAAQBAJ&q=han+dynasty+korean+peninsula&pg=PA25, 25, 9781469102443, Tanner (2009). p. 167.At various points in time, Chinese dynasties exercised control over China proper (including Hainan, Macau, and Hong Kong), Taiwan, Manchuria (both Inner Manchuria and Outer Manchuria), Sakhalin, Mongolia (both Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia), Vietnam,Lockard (2020). p. 262. Tibet, Xinjiang, as well as parts of Central Asia, the Korean Peninsula, Afghanistan,Hsu (2012). p. 268. and Siberia.Territorially, the largest orthodox Chinese dynasty was either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source.{{efn|name=“GreatYuan“}} This discrepancy can be mainly attributed to the ambiguous northern border of the Yuan realm: whereas some sources describe the Yuan border as located to the immediate north of the northern shore of Lake Baikal, others posit that the Yuan dynasty reached as far north as the Arctic coast, with its western boundary with the Golden Horde in Siberia delimited by the Ob and the Irtysh.BOOK, History of the World Map by Map, 2018,books.google.com/books?id=dxGnDwAAQBAJ&q=yuan+dynasty+map&pg=RA1-PA33, 133, 9780241379189, D. K, BOOK, Tan, Qixiang, The Historical Atlas of China, 1982, 元时期全图（一）,www.guoxue123.com/other/map/pic/14/01.jpg, BOOK, Tan, Qixiang, The Historical Atlas of China, 1982, 元时期全图（二）,www.guoxue123.com/other/map/pic/14/20.jpg, In contrast, the borders of the Qing dynasty were demarcated and reinforced through a series of international treaties, and thus were more well-defined.Apart from exerting direct control over the Chinese realm, various dynasties of China also maintained hegemony over other states and tribes through the Chinese tributary system.BOOK, Kavalski, Emilian, Asian Thought on China’s Changing International Relations, 2014,books.google.com/books?id=IRhvBAAAQBAJ&q=chinese+tributary+system&pg=PA57, 56–57, 9781137299338, The Chinese tributary system first emerged during the Western Han and lasted until the 19th century AD when the Sinocentric order broke down.BOOK, Rand, Christopher, Military Thought in Early China, 2017,books.google.com/books?id=2hLVDgAAQBAJ&q=chinese+tributary+system+western+han&pg=PA142, 142, 9781438465180, BOOK, Brown, Kerry, China’s 19th Party Congress: Start Of A New Era, 2018,books.google.com/books?id=jvZtDwAAQBAJ&q=chinese+tributary+system+19th+century&pg=PA197, 197, 9781786345936, The modern territorial claims of both the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of China are inherited from the lands once held by the Qing dynasty at the time of its collapse.Tanner (2009). p. 419.BOOK, Esherick, Joseph, Kayali, Hasan, Van Young, Eric, Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World, 2006,books.google.com/books?id=reKxAAAAQBAJ&q=complete+territories+of+manchu,+han,+mongol,+hui,+tibetan&pg=PA245, 245, 9780742578159, BOOK, Zhai, Zhiyong, 憲法何以中國, 2017,books.google.com/books?id=ziEwDwAAQBAJ&q=仍合滿、漢、蒙、回、藏五族完全領土為一大中華民國&pg=PA190, 190, 9789629373214, BOOK, Gao, Quanxi, 政治憲法與未來憲制, 2016,books.google.com/books?id=P46rDAAAQBAJ&q=仍合滿、漢、蒙、回、藏五族完全領土為一大中華民國&pg=PA273, 273, 9789629372910,

List of major Chinese dynasties

This list includes only the major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines. This list is neither comprehensive nor representative of Chinese history as a whole.{| class=“wikitable“|+Major dynasties of China!rowspan=“2“|!Dynasty!colspan=“3“|Ruling house!colspan=“2“|Period of rule!colspan=“3“|Rulers!Name{{efn|name=“Name“|The English and Chinese names stated are historiographical denominations. These should not be confused with the {{transl|zh|guóhào}} officially proclaimed by each dynasty. A dynasty may be known by more than one historiographical name.}}{{small|(English{{efn|name=“Pinyin“|The English names shown are based on the Hanyu Pinyin renditions, the most common form of Mandarin romanization currently in adoption. Some scholarly works utilize the Wade–Giles system, which may differ drastically in the spelling of certain words. For instance, the Qing dynasty is rendered as “Ch῾ing dynasty” in Wade–Giles.WEB,www.britannica.com/topic/Qing-dynasty, Qing dynasty, 18 November 2019, }} / Chinese{{efn|name=“ChineseCharacters“|The Chinese characters shown are in Traditional Chinese. Some characters may have simplified versions that are currently used in mainland China. For instance, the characters for the Eastern Han are written as “” in Traditional Chinese and “” in Simplified Chinese.}} / Hanyu Pinyin / Wade–Giles / Bopomofo)}}!Surname{{small|(English{{efn|name=“Pinyin“}} / Chinese{{efn|name=“ChineseCharacters“}})}}!Ethnicity{{efn|name=“Ethnicity“|While Chinese historiography tends to treat dynasties as being of specific ethnic stocks, there were some monarchs who had mixed heritage.WEB,kknews.cc/history/yp5kj2n.html, 中国历史上的十大混血皇帝，有人居然有黑人血统, 5 March 2020, For instance, the Jiaqing Emperor of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty was of mixed Manchu and Han descent, having derived his Han ancestry from his mother, the Empress Xiaoyichun.BOOK, Zhu, Weizheng, Rereading Modern Chinese History, 2015,books.google.com/books?id=fTu2CAAAQBAJ&q=Jiaqing+Emperor+mixed+blood&pg=PA301, 301, 9789004293311, }}!Status{{efn|name=“Status“|The status of a dynasty was dependent upon the supreme title bore by its monarch at any given time. For instance, since all monarchs of the Chen dynasty held the title of emperor during their reign, the Chen dynasty was of imperial status.}}!Year!Term!Founder{{efn|name=“Founder“|The monarchs listed were the de facto founders of dynasties. However, it was common for Chinese monarchs to posthumously honor earlier members of the family as monarchs. For instance, while the Later Jin was officially established by the Emperor Gaozu of Later Jin, four earlier members of the ruling house were posthumously accorded imperial titles, the most senior of which was Shi Jing who was conferred the temple name “Jingzu” () and the posthumous name “Emperor Xiao’an” ().}}!Last monarch!List / Family tree!colspan=“10“|Semi-legendary style="background:#FFFDF9;“|

Xia dynasty}}{{small

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Si (), the ruling house of the Xia dynasty also bore the lineage name Xiahou ().LI

TITLE=中國古代文明與國家形成硏究

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Hou Yi#Historical references

, surnamed Youqiong (), was of Dongyi descent.LIU

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name=“YunZhuo”

Han Zhuo>Yun Zhuo, surnamed Yun (), was of Dongyi descent.YAO>FIRST1=WEIJUN

FIRST2=CHUANYIN

YEAR=2017

ISBN=9787568033213, His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.}}

Huaxia{{efn>name=“Yi“}}{{efn|name=“YunZhuo“}}|Royal

TITLE=NEVER FORGET NATIONAL HUMILIATION: HISTORICAL MEMORY IN CHINESE POLITICS AND FOREIGN RELATIONS

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=-LBSTS1LOXUC&Q=XIA+DYNASTY+2070-1600+BC&PG=PA44

ISBN=9780231520164, {{efn

The dates given for the Xia dynasty, the Shang dynasty, and the Western Zhou prior to the start of the Gonghe Regency in 841 BC are derived from the Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project.}}{{efn

The rule of the Xia dynasty was traditionally dated 2205–1766 BC as per the calculations made by the historian Liu Xin (scholar)

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TITLE=READINGS IN CLASSICAL CHINESE PHILOSOPHY

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=Y8TGDWAAQBAJ&Q=ZHOU+DYNASTY+1122-256&PG=PA385

ISBN=9781603844901, TAN>FIRST1=KOON SAN

YEAR=2014

PAGE=8, 9789839541885, Accordingly, the Xia dynasty lasted 439 years.}}

name=“TraditionalXia“}}

Yu the Great>Yu of Xia|Jie of Xia

List of Chinese monarchs#Xia dynasty (夏朝) (2070–1600 BC)>list)(tree)

!colspan=“10“|Ancient China style="background:#FFFDF9;“|

Shang dynasty}}{{small

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King Zhou of Shang>Zhou of Shang

List of Chinese monarchs#Shang dynasty (商朝) (1600–1046 BC)>list)(tree)

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name=“Xia–Shang–Zhou“}}{{efn

The rule of the Western Zhou was traditionally dated 1122–771 BC as per the calculations made by the historian Liu Xin. Accordingly, the Western Zhou lasted 351 years.}}

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King Wu of Zhou>Wu of Zhou

King You of Zhou>You of Zhou

List of Chinese monarchs#Zhou dynasty (周朝) (1046–256 BC)>list)(tree)

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Qin dynasty}}{{small

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Ying (), the ruling house of the Qin dynasty also bore the lineage name Zhao ().WU

TITLE=名人取名的故事

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=HE3WDWAAQBAJ&Q=%E7%A7%A6%E5%A7%8B%E7%9A%87+%E5%AC%B4%E5%A7%93+%E8%B5%B5%E6%B0%8F&PG=PT14

(221–207 BC)}}Royal{{small|(207 BC)}}

TITLE=UNEARTHING THE CHANGES: RECENTLY DISCOVERED MANUSCRIPTS OF THE YI JING (I CHING) AND RELATED TEXTS

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=DCUJAWAAQBAJ&Q=QIN+DYNASTY+221-207+BC&PG=PA19

ISBN=9780231533300, |14 years|Qin Shi Huang

Ziying of Qin>Ying Ziying

List of Chinese monarchs#Qin dynasty (秦朝) (221–207 BC)>list)(tree)

style="background:#FFFDF9;“|

Han dynasty#Western Han

}}{{efn>name=“Han”

Han dynasty#Western Han>Western Han () and the Han dynasty#Eastern Han

() are collectively known as the Han dynasty (; {{transl>zh

4}} Ch῾ao{{sup

{{transl

XÄ« Hàn}}}}’’{{small

1}} Han{{sup

}}

Han Chinese>Han|Imperial

TITLE=AN INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE HISTORY AND CULTURE

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=1QHJCAAAQBAJ&Q=WESTERN+HAN+DYNASTY+202+BC-9+AD&PG=PA92

ISBN=9783662464823, {{efn

Some historians consider 206 BC, the year in which the Emperor Gaozu of Han

was proclaimed “King of Han”, to be the start of the Han dynasty#Western Han>Western Han.EARNSHAW>FIRST1=GRAHAM

YEAR=2004

PAGE=30, 9781933782768, Accordingly, the Western Han lasted 215 years.}}

name=“AlternativeWesternHan“}}

Emperor Gaozu of Han>Gao of Han

Ruzi Ying>Liu Ying{{efn

Ruzi Ying

was not officially enthroned and maintained the title {{transl>zh

Wang Mang.WANG

TITLE=中华古文明史辞典

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=WQOWAQAAIAAJ&Q=刘婴+皇太子

ISBN=9787805182773, The last Western Han monarch who was officially enthroned was the Emperor Ping of Han.}}

List of emperors of the Han dynasty#Emperors>list)(tree)

style="background:white;“|

Xin dynasty}}{{small	zh	Hsin{{sup	2}}}}’’{{small				TITLE=ASTRONOMY IN THE ANCIENT WORLD: EARLY AND MODERN VIEWS ON CELESTIAL EVENTS	URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=NUJ6DAAAQBAJ&Q=XIN+DYNASTY+9-23&PG=PA85	ISBN=9783319236001, |14 years	Wang Mang	List of Chinese monarchs#Xin dynasty (新朝) (9–23 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:#FFFDF9;“|

Han dynasty#Eastern Han

}}{{efn>name=“Han“}}{{small

zh

Tung{{sup

4}}}}’’{{small

TITLE=THE COLLAPSE OF CHINA’S LATER HAN DYNASTY, 25-220 AD: THE NORTHWEST BORDERLANDS AND THE EDGE OF EMPIRE

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=-Y9IDWAAQBAJ&Q=EASTERN+HAN+25-220&PG=PT18, 9781315532318, |195 years

Emperor Guangwu of Han>Guangwu of Han

Emperor Xian of Han>Xian of Han

List of emperors of the Han dynasty#Emperors>list)(tree)

style="background:lightgray;”

	Three Kingdoms{{small>{{transl	Sān Guó}}}}’’{{small	1}} Kuo{{sup	}}|||	AD 220–280PEI	TITLE=GALE RESEARCHER GUIDE FOR: THE THREE KINGDOMS AND THE JIN	URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=PFN1DWAAQBAJ&Q=THREE+KINGDOMS+220-280&PG=PP4, 9781535865692, |60 years||	List of Chinese monarchs#Three Kingdoms (三國) (220–280 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Cao Wei}}{{small

zh

Ts῾ao{{sup

4}}}}’’{{small

LAST2=WEI

TITLE=幻化之龍：兩千年中國歷史變遷中的孔子

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=UUOQDWAAQBAJ&Q=曹魏+220-266&PG=PA122

ISBN=9789629966485, |46 years

Cao Pi>Wen of Cao Wei

Cao Huan>Yuan of Cao Wei

List of Chinese monarchs#Cao Wei (曹魏) (220–266 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Shu Han}}{{small

zh

Shu{{sup

4}}}}’’{{small

LAST2=CAO

TITLE=INTRODUCTION TO THE URBAN HISTORY OF CHINA

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=YJULDWAAQBAJ&Q=SHU+HAN+221-263&PG=PA123

ISBN=9789811382079, |42 years

Liu Bei>Zhaolie of Shu Han

Liu Shan>Huai of Shu Han

List of Chinese monarchs#Shu Han (蜀漢) (221–263 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Eastern Wu}}{{small

zh

Tung{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

(AD 222–229)}}Imperial{{small|(AD 229–280)}}

TITLE=香港通史：遠古至清代

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=WYKGDWAAQBAJ&Q=东吴+222-280&PG=PA39

ISBN=9789620441660, |58 years

Sun Quan>Da of Eastern Wu|Sun Hao

List of Chinese monarchs#Eastern Wu (東吳) (222–280 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:#FFFDF9;“|

Jin dynasty (266–420)#Western Jin (266–316)

}}{{efn>name=“Jin1”

Jin dynasty (266–420)#Western Jin (266–316)>Western Jin () and the Jin dynasty (266–420)#Eastern Jin (317–420)

() are collectively known as the Jin dynasty (266–420)>Jin dynasty (; {{transl

Jìn Cháo}}; ‘’Chin{{sup

2}}’’; ).}}{{efn

The names of the Jin dynasty (266–420)

() of the Sima clan and the Jin dynasty (1115–1234)>Jin dynasty () of the Wanyan clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for “Jin”.}}{{small

zh

Hsi{{sup

4}}}}’’{{small

TITLE=近代中國海防史新論

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=J-GNDGAAQBAJ&Q=西晋+266-316&PG=PT265

ISBN=9789620440472, |50 years

Emperor Wu of Jin>Wu of Jin

Emperor Min of Jin>Min of Jin

List of Chinese monarchs#Jin dynasty (晉朝) (266–420 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:#FFFDF9;“|

Jin dynasty (266–420)#Eastern Jin (317–420)

}}{{efn>name=“Jin1“}}{{efn

{{transl

Dōng Jìn}}}}’’{{small

1}} Chin{{sup

}}

TITLE=SHAPING THE LOTUS SUTRA: BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE IN MEDIEVAL CHINA

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=8X2BNASJUW4C&Q=EASTERN+JIN+317-420&PG=PA13

ISBN=9780295984629, |103 years

Emperor Yuan of Jin>Yuan of Jin

Emperor Gong of Jin>Gong of Jin

List of Chinese monarchs#Jin dynasty (晉朝) (266–420 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:lightgray;”

Sixteen Kingdoms{{efn>name=“SixteenKingdoms”

Sixteen Kingdoms are also referred to as the “Sixteen Kingdoms of the Five Barbarians” (; {{transl>zh

Five Barbarians”.GERNET

TITLE=A HISTORY OF CHINESE CIVILIZATION

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=JQB7L-PKCV8C&Q=SIXTEEN+KINGDOMS+OF+THE+FIVE+BARBARIANS&PG=PA186

ISBN=9780521497817, }}{{small

zh

Shih{{sup

4}} Kuo{{sup

}}|||

AD 304–439SHEN

TITLE=闲读中国史

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=_VP_DWAAQBAJ&Q=十六国+304-439&PG=PT79, 9787210081692, |135 years||

List of Chinese monarchs#Sixteen Kingdoms (十六國) (304–439 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Han-Zhao}}{{small

zh

Han{{sup

4}}}}’’{{small

name=“Luandi”

Han-Zhao initially bore the surname Luandi ().ZHOU

TITLE=汉赵国史

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=INX-AAAAIAAJ&Q=攣鞮+汉赵+刘渊

ISBN=9787563359943, XU>FIRST1=JUNYUAN

FIRST2=ZHANJUN

FIRST3=YUXIN

YEAR=1986

PAGE=65, Liu () was subsequently adopted as the surname prior to the establishment of the Han-Zhao.}}{{efn

As Jin Zhun, surnamed Jin (), was not a member of the Liu () clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.ZHANG>FIRST1=CHENGWANG

YEAR=2013

PAGE=169

Xiongnu

(AD 304–308)}}Imperial{{small|(AD 308–329)}}

TITLE=WOMEN SHALL NOT RULE: IMPERIAL WIVES AND CONCUBINES IN CHINA FROM HAN TO LIAO

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=GC_3IXKWG3QC&Q=HAN+ZHAO+304-329&PG=PA123

ISBN=9781442222908, |25 years

Liu Yuan (Han-Zhao)>Guangwen of Han-Zhao|Liu Yao

List of Chinese monarchs#Han Zhao (漢趙) (304–329 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Cheng-Han}}{{small

zh

Ch῾eng{{sup

4}}}}’’{{small

Di (Five Barbarians)>Di

(AD 304–306)}}Imperial{{small|(AD 306–347)}}

LAST2=PAN

TITLE=中外歷史大事年表

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=ZZSTAGAAQBAJ&Q=成汉+304-347&PG=PA213

ISBN=9789628931736, {{efn

Some historians consider AD 303, the year in which the Li Te

declared the Chinese era name>era name “Jianchu” (), to be the start of the Cheng-Han.WONG

TITLE=CHINESE STELES: PRE-BUDDHIST AND BUDDHIST USE OF A SYMBOLIC FORM

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=4GNK5HZIIKGC&Q=CHENG+HAN+303-347&PG=PP25, 9780824827830, Accordingly, the Cheng-Han was founded by the Emperor Jing of Cheng-Han and lasted 44 years.}}

name=“AlternativeChengHan“}}

Li Xiong>Wu of Cheng-Han{{efn|name=“AlternativeChengHan“}}

Li Shi (emperor)>Li Shi

List of Chinese monarchs#Cheng Han (成漢) (304–347 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Later Zhao}}{{small

zh

Hou{{sup

4}}}}’’{{small

Jie people>Jie

(AD 319–330)}}Imperial{{small

(AD 351)}}

LAST2=YANG

LAST3=JESSY

TITLE=EARLY MEDIEVAL CHINA: A SOURCEBOOK

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=AEIIL2Y6VJQC&Q=LATER+ZHAO+319-351&PG=PA30

ISBN=9780231531009, |32 years

Shi Le>Ming of Later Zhao|Shi Zhi

List of Chinese monarchs#Later Zhao (後趙) (319–351 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Former Liang}}{{small

zh

Ch῾ien{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

(AD 320–354, AD 355–363)}}Imperial{{small

(AD 363–376)}}

TITLE=WHERE DRAGON VEINS MEET: THE KANGXI EMPEROR AND HIS ESTATE AT REHE

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=JTTHDWAAQBAJ&Q=FORMER+LIANG+320-376&PG=PA225

ISBN=9780295745817, |56 years

Zhang Mao>Cheng of Former Liang

Zhang Tianxi>Dao of Former Liang

List of Chinese monarchs#Former Liang (前涼) (320–376 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Former Yan}}{{small

zh

Ch῾ien{{sup

1}}}}’’{{small

Xianbei

(AD 337–353)}}Imperial{{small|(AD 353–370)}}

TITLE=MAN’YōSHÅ« AND THE IMPERIAL IMAGINATION IN EARLY JAPAN

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=XA62AGAAQBAJ&Q=FORMER+YAN+337-370&PG=PA27

ISBN=9789004264540, |33 years

Murong Huang>Wenming of Former Yan

Murong Wei>You of Former Yan

List of Chinese monarchs#Former Yan (前燕) (337–370 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Former Qin}}{{small

zh

Ch῾ien{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

name=“Pu”

Former Qin initially bore the surname Pu ().CHEN

TITLE=人物評話：古今人物逍遙遊

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=YBE2AAAAQBAJ&Q=前秦+蒲姓&PG=PT115

ISBN=9789573253327, The Fu Hong

subsequently adopted Fu () as the surname in AD 349 prior to the establishment of the Former Qin.}}|Di|Imperial

name=“AlternativeFormerQin”

Fu Hong>Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin was proclaimed “Prince of Three Qins”, to be the start of the Former Qin.SILK>FIRST1=JONATHAN

YEAR=2013

PAGE=589, 9789004263291, Accordingly, the Former Qin was founded by the Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin and lasted 44 years.}}

name=“AlternativeFormerQin“}}

Fu Jian (317–355)>Jingming of Former Qin{{efn|name=“AlternativeFormerQin“}}|Fu Chong

List of Chinese monarchs#Former Qin (前秦) (351–394 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Later Yan}}{{small

zh

Hou{{sup

1}}}}’’{{small

name=“LanHan”

Lan Han, surnamed Lan (), was not a member of the Murong () clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.LIU

TITLE=歷代胡族王朝之民族政策

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=SY_BVJCTRRKC&Q=蘭汗自立&PG=PA41

ISBN=9789867151018, }}{{efn

The Gao Yun (emperor)

was of Gaogouli descent. Originally surnamed Gao (), he was an adopted member of the Murong () clan.LIU

TITLE=鮮卑列國：大興安嶺傳奇

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=FADEDWAAQBAJ&Q=高云+后燕末代&PG=PT90

name=“GaoYun1“}}

(AD 384–386)}}Imperial{{small|(AD 386–409)}}

TITLE=CHINESE ARCHITECTURE IN AN AGE OF TURMOIL, 200-600

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=ZB_HDWAAQBAJ&Q=LATER+384-409&PG=PA28

ISBN=9780824838232, {{efn

Depending on the status of the Emperor Huiyi of Yan, the Later Yan ended in either AD 407 or AD 409 and lasted either 23 years or 25 years.}}

name=“LaterYan“}}

Murong Chui>Chengwu of Later Yan

Murong Xi>Zhaowen of Later YanGao Yun (emperor)

{{efn>name=“GaoYun2”

Gao Yun (emperor)>Emperor Huiyi of Yan could either be the last Later Yan monarch or the founder of the Northern Yan depending on the historian’s characterization.}}

List of Chinese monarchs#Later Yan (後燕) (384–409 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Later Qin}}{{small

zh

Hou{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

Qiang (historical people)>Qiang

(AD 384–386)}}Imperial{{small|(AD 386–417)}}

TITLE=後秦政治外交史簡論五篇

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=DZTIBAAAQBAJ&Q=后秦+384-417&PG=PA69

ISBN=9789881278982, |33 years

Yao Chang>Wuzhao of Later Qin|Yao Hong

List of Chinese monarchs#Later Qin (後秦) (384–417 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Western Qin}}{{small

zh

Hsi{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

TITLE=GOOD SON IS SAD IF HE HEARS THE NAME OF HIS FATHER: THE TABOOING OF NAMES IN CHINA AS A WAY OF IMPLEMENTING SOCIAL VALUES

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=WZQRDWAAQBAJ&Q=WESTERN+QIN+385-400+409-431&PG=PA344

ISBN=9781351565219,

name=“WesternQin”

Western Qin was interrupted by the Later Qin between AD 400 and AD 409. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 400 and the realm restored in AD 409. The Qifu Gangui>Prince Wuyuan of Western Qin was both the last ruler before the interregnum and the first ruler after the interregnum.}}

Qifu Guoren>Xuanlie of Western Qin|Qifu Mumo

List of Chinese monarchs#Western Qin (西秦) (385–400 AD, 409–431 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)

}}{{efn>name=“LaterLiang”

Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)>Later Liang () of the Lü clan and the Later Liang (Five Dynasties)

() of the Zhu clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for “Liang”.}}{{small>{{transl

Hòu Liáng}}}}’’{{small

4}} Liang{{sup

}}

(AD 386–389)}}Princely{{small

(AD 396–403)}}

TITLE=河西走廊藏文化史要

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=BSSPDWAAQBAJ&Q=后凉+386-403&PG=PT25, 9787542117083, |17 years

Lü Guang>Yiwu of Later Liang|Lü Long

List of Chinese monarchs#Later Liang (後涼) (386–403 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Southern Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)

}}{{small>{{transl

Nán Liáng}}}}’’{{small

2}} Liang{{sup

}}

name=“Tufa”

Southern Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)>Southern Liang initially bore the surname Tuoba (). Tufa Pigu subsequently adopted Tufa () as the surname prior to the establishment of the Southern Liang.}}|Xianbei|Princely

TITLE=A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CHINESE PEOPLE

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=BZF_L1V7NLUC&DQ=SOUTHERN+LIANG+397-404+408-414&PG=PA85

ISBN=9780486424880,

name=“SouthernLiang”

Southern Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)>Southern Liang was interrupted by the Later Qin between AD 404 and AD 408. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 404 and the realm restored in AD 408. The Prince Jing of Southern Liang was both the last ruler before the interregnum and the first ruler after the interregnum.}}

Tufa Wugu>Wu of Southern Liang

Tufa Rutan>Jing of Southern Liang

List of Chinese monarchs#Southern Liang (南涼) (397–414 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Northern Liang}}{{small

zh

Pei{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

name=“DuanYe”

Duan Ye, surnamed Duan (), was of Han Chinese>Han descent.Lü>FIRST1=FU

YEAR=2017

PAGE=154, The enthronement of the Juqu Mengxun

was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.}}

name=“DuanYe“}}

(AD 397–399, AD 401–412)}}Princely{{small|(AD 399–401, AD 412–439)}}

LAST2=YUAN

TITLE=2011：古丝绸之路

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=7SJYDWAAQBAJ&Q=北凉+397-439&PG=PA153

ISBN=9789813206076, |42 years|Duan Ye

Juqu Mujian>Ai of Northern Liang

List of Chinese monarchs#Northern Liang (北涼) (397–439 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Southern Yan}}{{small

zh

Nan{{sup

1}}}}’’{{small

(AD 398–400)}}Imperial{{small|(AD 400–410)}}

LAST2=WAN

LAST3=CHEN

TITLE=中国历史纪年表（精）

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=4G61DWAAQBAJ&Q=南燕+398-410&PG=PA102, 9787101133172, |12 years

Murong De>Xianwu of Southern Yan|Murong Chao

List of Chinese monarchs#Southern Yan (南燕) (398–410 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Western Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)

}}{{small>{{transl

XÄ« Liáng}}}}’’{{small

1}} Liang{{sup

}}

House of Li>Li|Han|Ducal

LAST2=WANG

LAST3=FANG

TITLE=秦汉魏晋南北朝史

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=RIBTTWX-V8IC&Q=西凉+400-421&PG=PA335

ISBN=9789571128702, |21 years

Li Gao>Wuzhao of Western Liang

Li Xun (Western Liang)>Li Xun

List of Chinese monarchs#Western Liang (西涼) (400–421 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms)

}}{{small>{{transl

Hú Xià}}}}’’{{small

2}} Hsia{{sup

}}

name=“Helian”

Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms)>Hu Xia initially bore the surname Luandi ().HTTPS://KKNEWS.CC/HISTORY/ZNRXJJA.HTML>TITLE=匈奴嬌子的赫連大夏國

Liu () was adopted as the surname prior to the establishment of the Hu Xia.KIM

TITLE=THE HUNS

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=BNV4CGAAQBAJ&Q=HELIAN+BOBO+SURNAME&PG=PA30

Helian Bobo>Emperor Wulie of Hu Xia subsequently adopted Helian () as the surname in AD 413 after the establishment of the Hu Xia.}}|Xiongnu|Imperial

TITLE=THE SINITIC CIVILIZATION BOOK II: A FACTUAL HISTORY THROUGH THE LENS OF ARCHAEOLOGY, BRONZEWARE, ASTRONOMY, DIVINATION, CALENDAR AND THE ANNALS

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=P1H7DWAAQBAJ&Q=HU+XIA+407-431&PG=PT610, 9781532058318, |24 years

Helian Bobo>Wulie of Hu Xia|Helian Ding

List of Chinese monarchs#Hu Xia (胡夏) (407–431 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Northern Yan}}{{small

zh

Pei{{sup

1}}}}’’{{small

name=“GaoYun3”

Gao Yun (emperor)>Emperor Huiyi of Yan was of Gaogouli descent. Originally surnamed Gao (), he was an adopted member of the Murong () clan. The enthronement of the Feng Ba

was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.}}

name=“GaoYun3“}}|Imperial

TITLE=INFAMOUS CHINESE EMPERORS: TALES OF TYRANNY AND MISRULE

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=DJF5DWAAQBAJ&Q=NORTHERN+YAN+407-436&PG=PA180

ISBN=9789812299314, {{efn

Depending on the status of the Emperor Huiyi of Yan, the Northern Yan was established in either AD 407 or AD 409 and lasted either 29 years or 27 years.}}

name=“NorthernYan“}}

Gao Yun (emperor)>Huiyi of Yan{{efn

Feng Ba>Wencheng of Northern Yan

Feng Hong>Zhaocheng of Northern Yan

List of Chinese monarchs#Northern Yan (北燕) (407–436 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:lightgray;”

Northern and Southern dynasties#Northern dynasties>Northern dynasties{{small

zh

Pei{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

AD 386–581WANG

LAST2=CHEN

LAST3=XIE

TITLE=HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF TRADITIONAL CHINESE MEDICINE

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=F5QDQKBSRLWC&Q=NORTHERN+DYNASTIES+386-581&PG=PA94

ISBN=9787030065674, |195 years||

List of emperors of China’s Northern Dynasties>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Northern Wei}}{{small

zh

Pei{{sup

4}}}}’’{{small

Tuoba{{efn>name=“Tuoba1”

Northern Wei initially bore the surname Tuoba ().XIONG

TITLE=HISTORICAL DICTIONARY OF MEDIEVAL CHINA

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=FCDCDGAAQBAJ&Q=NORTHERN+WEI+TUOBA+SURNAME&PG=PA613

ISBN=9781442276161, The Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei subsequently adopted Yuan () as the surname in AD 493 after the establishment of the Northern Wei.}}|Xianbei

(AD 386–399)}}Imperial{{small|(AD 399–535)}}

LAST2=GOLDMAN

TITLE=CHINA: A NEW HISTORY

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=NBDC2CQB6I0C&Q=NORTHERN+WEI+386-535&PG=PA73

ISBN=9780674018280, |149 years

Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei>Daowu of Northern Wei

Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei>Xiaowu of Northern Wei

List of Chinese monarchs#Northern Wei (北魏) (386–535 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Eastern Wei}}{{small

zh

Tung{{sup

4}}}}’’{{small

name=“Tuoba2”

Eastern Wei initially bore the surname Tuoba (). The Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei subsequently adopted Yuan () as the surname in AD 493 prior to the establishment of the Eastern Wei.}}|Xianbei|Imperial

TITLE=GREAT WALLS AND LINEAR BARRIERS

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=OFMXBGAAQBAJ&Q=EASTERN+WEI+534-550&PG=PA211

ISBN=9781473854048, |16 years

Xiaojing of Eastern Wei

List of Chinese monarchs#Eastern Wei (東魏) (534–550 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Western Wei}}{{small

zh

Hsi{{sup

4}}}}’’{{small

name=“Tuoba3”

Western Wei initially bore the surname Tuoba (). The Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei subsequently adopted Yuan () as the surname in AD 493 prior to the establishment of the Western Wei, only for the Emperor Gong of Western Wei to restore the surname Tuoba in AD 554 after the establishment of the Western Wei.HOLCOMBE

TITLE=THE GENESIS OF EAST ASIA: 221 B.C.–A.D. 907

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=XT5PVPZ4VROC&Q=WESTERN+WEI+TUOBA+RESTORED&PG=PA140

ISBN=9780824824655, }}|Xianbei|Imperial|AD 535–557|22 years

Emperor Wen of Western Wei>Wen of Western Wei

Emperor Gong of Western Wei>Gong of Western Wei

List of Chinese monarchs#Western Wei (西魏) (535–557 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

	Northern Qi}}{{small	zh	Pei{{sup	2}}}}’’{{small			Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi>Wenxuan of Northern Qi|Gao Heng	List of Chinese monarchs#Northern Qi (北齊) (550–577 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

	Northern Zhou}}{{small	zh	Pei{{sup	1}}}}’’{{small			Emperor Xiaomin of Northern Zhou>Xiaomin of Northern Zhou	Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou>Jing of Northern Zhou	List of Chinese monarchs#Northern Zhou (北周) (557–581 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:lightgray;”

	Northern and Southern dynasties#Southern dynasties>Southern dynasties{{small	zh	Nan{{sup	2}}}}’’{{small		AD 420–589TAN	TITLE=长沙通史（古代卷）	URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=P2J6DWAAQBAJ&Q=南朝+420-589&PG=PT140, 9787999009009, |169 years||	List of emperors of China’s Southern Dynasties#Emperors of the Southern Dynasties>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Liu Song dynasty

}}{{small>{{transl

Liú Sòng}}}}’’{{small

2}} Sung{{sup

}}

TITLE=READING MEDIEVAL CHINESE POETRY: TEXT, CONTEXT, AND CULTURE

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=NYIEBQAAQBAJ&Q=LIU+SONG+420-479&PG=PA36

ISBN=9789004282063, |59 years

Emperor Wu of Song>Wu of Liu Song

Emperor Shun of Song>Shun of Liu Song

List of Chinese monarchs#Liu Song (劉宋) (420–479 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Southern Qi}}{{small

zh

Nan{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

TITLE=THE WILEY-BLACKWELL COMPANION TO CHINESE RELIGIONS

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=FMNKSFAS4PCC&Q=SOUTHERN+QI+479-502&PG=PA147

ISBN=9781444361971, |23 years

Emperor Gao of Southern Qi>Gao of Southern Qi

Emperor He of Southern Qi>He of Southern Qi

List of Chinese monarchs#Southern Qi (南齊) (479–502 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Liang dynasty}}{{small

zh

Liang{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

TITLE=DEMON HORDES AND BURNING BOATS: THE CULT OF MARSHAL WEN IN LATE IMPERIAL CHEKIANG

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=E71J2KPGT_IC&Q=LIANG+DYNASTY+502-557&PG=PA79

ISBN=9781438408484, |55 years

Emperor Wu of Liang>Wu of Liang

Emperor Jing of Liang>Jing of Liang

List of Chinese monarchs#Liang dynasty (梁朝) (502–557 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Chen dynasty}}{{small

zh

Ch῾en{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

TITLE=HOW TO READ CHINESE POETRY: A GUIDED ANTHOLOGY

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=H8FWF7PYOIUC&Q=CHEN+DYNASTY+557-589&PG=PA152

ISBN=9780231511889, |32 years

Emperor Wu of Chen>Wu of Chen|Chen Shubao

List of Chinese monarchs#Chen dynasty (陳朝) (557–589 AD)>list)(tree)

!colspan=“10“|Middle Imperial China{{efn|name=“ChineseEmpire2“}} style="background:#FFFDF9;“|

Sui dynasty}}{{small

zh

Sui{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

name=“Yang”

Sui dynasty initially bore the surname Yang (). The Western Wei later bestowed the surname Puliuru () upon the family.KNECHTGES

LAST2=CHANG

TITLE=ANCIENT AND EARLY MEDIEVAL CHINESE LITERATURE: A REFERENCE GUIDE

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=OWLPBAAAQBAJ&Q=PULIURU+YANG+JIAN&PG=PA1818

ISBN=9789004271852, The Emperor Wen of Sui subsequently restored Yang as the surname in AD 580 prior to the establishment of the Sui dynasty.}}|Han|Imperial

TITLE=ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE MANCHURIA

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=DYN-AWAAQBAJ&Q=SUI+DYNASTY+581-619&PG=PA115

ISBN=9781483667676, |38 years

Emperor Wen of Sui>Wen of Sui

Yang Tong>Gong of Sui

List of Chinese monarchs#Sui dynasty (隋朝) (581–619 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:#FFFDF9;“|

Tang dynasty}}{{small

zh

T῾ang{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

House of Li>Li{{efn

The ruling house of the Tang dynasty initially bore the surname Li (). The Western Wei later bestowed the surname Daye () upon the family.LUO>FIRST1=XIANGLIN

YEAR=1996

PAGE=45

Li was subsequently restored as the surname in AD 580 prior to the establishment of the Tang dynasty.}}|Han|Imperial

TITLE=A GOOD SON IS SAD IF HE HEARS THE NAME OF HIS FATHER: THE TABOOING OF NAMES IN CHINA AS A WAY OF IMPLEMENTING SOCIAL VALUES

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=WZQRDWAAQBAJ&Q=TANG+DYNASTY+FAMILY+NAME+LI+618-690+705-907&PG=PA348

ISBN=9781351565219,

name=“Tang”

Tang dynasty was interrupted by the Zhou dynasty (690–705)>Wu Zhou between AD 690 and AD 705. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 690 and the realm restored in AD 705. The Emperor Ruizong of Tang was the last ruler before the interregnum; the Emperor Zhongzong of Tang was the first ruler after the interregnum.}}

Emperor Gaozu of Tang>Gaozu of Tang

Emperor Ai of Tang>Ai of Tang

List of emperors of the Tang dynasty#List of Emperors>list)(tree)

style="background:white;“|

Zhou dynasty (690–705)	}}{{small>{{transl	WÇ” Zhōu}}}}’’{{small	3}} Chou{{sup	}}			TITLE=那些顛覆時代的女人	URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=1D4RAWAAQBAJ&Q=武周+690-705&PG=PT38, |15 years	Shengshen of Wu Zhou	List of Chinese monarchs#Wu Zhou (武周) (690–705 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:lightgray;”

	Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period#Five Dynasties>Five Dynasties{{small	zh	Wu{{sup	4}}}}’’{{small		AD 907–960STANDEN	TITLE=UNBOUNDED LOYALTY: FRONTIER CROSSINGS IN LIAO CHINA	URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=NAFLXMABDGGC&Q=FIVE+DYNASTIES+907-960&PG=PA1	ISBN=9780824829834, |53 years||	List of Chinese monarchs#Five Dynasties (五代) (907–960 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Later Liang (Five Dynasties)

}}{{efn>name=“LaterLiang“}}{{small

zh

Hou{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

LAST2=KAPSTEIN

LAST3=TUTTLE

TITLE=SOURCES OF TIBETAN TRADITION

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=VMKMBCSXXDKC&Q=LATER+LIANG+907-923&PG=PA338

ISBN=9780231509787, |16 years

Zhu Wen>Taizu of Later Liang|Zhu Youzhen

List of Chinese monarchs#Later Liang (後梁) (907–923 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Later Tang}}{{small

zh

Hou{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

name=“Zhuye”

Later Tang initially bore the surname Zhuye ().XU

TITLE=《百家姓》新解

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=X2Z0DWAAQBAJ&Q=朱邪赤心+赐姓李&PG=PT31

Li Guochang>Emperor Xianzu of Later Tang subsequently adopted Li () as the surname in AD 869 prior to the establishment of the Later Tang.}}{{efn

The Li Siyuan

, originally without surname, was an adopted member of the Li () clan.ZANG

TITLE=中國歷史人物的讀心術

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=MS50DWAAQBAJ&Q=李嗣源+邈佶烈+李克用养子&PG=PA154

ISBN=9789868825895, His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.}}{{efn

Li Congke was of Han Chinese

descent. Originally surnamed Wang (), he was an adopted member of the Li () clan.LIANG

LAST2=YANG

TITLE=皇权兴衰通鉴

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=V9LZAAAAIAAJ&Q=李從珂+王姓

ISBN=9787538334289, His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.}}

Shatuo{{efn>name=“LiCongke“}}|Imperial

LAST2=KARL

LAST3=KO

TITLE=THE BIRTH OF CHINESE FEMINISM: ESSENTIAL TEXTS IN TRANSNATIONAL THEORY

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=3FMIMAQFYDIC&Q=LATER+TANG+923-937&PG=PA164

ISBN=9780231533263, |14 years

Li Cunxu>Zhuangzong of Later Tang|Li Congke

List of Chinese monarchs#Later Tang (後唐) (923–937 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Later Jin (Five Dynasties)

}}{{efn>name=“LaterJin”

Later Jin (Five Dynasties)>Later Jin () of the Shi clan and the Later Jin (1616–1636)

() of the Aisin Gioro clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for “Jin”.}}{{small>{{transl

Hòu Jìn}}}}’’{{small

4}} Chin{{sup

}}

TITLE=THE AGE OF CONFUCIAN RULE: THE SONG TRANSFORMATION OF CHINA

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=KRK8DWAAQBAJ&Q=LATER+JIN+936-947&PG=PT24, 9780674244344, |11 years

Shi Jingtang>Gaozu of Later Jin

Shi Chonggui>Chu of Later Jin

List of Chinese monarchs#Later Jin (後晉) (936–947 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

	Later Han (Five Dynasties)	}}{{small>{{transl	Hòu Hàn}}}}’’{{small	4}} Han{{sup	}}		Liu Zhiyuan>Gaozu of Later Han	Liu Chengyou>Yin of Later Han	List of Chinese monarchs#Later Han (後漢) (947–951 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Later Zhou}}{{small

zh

Hou{{sup

1}}}}’’{{small

name=“ChaiRong”

Chai Rong>Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, originally surnamed Chai (), was an adopted member of the Guo () clan.LORGE>FIRST1=PETER

YEAR=2015

PAGE=45

Guo Wei>Taizu of Later Zhou

Guo Zongxun>Gong of Later Zhou

List of Chinese monarchs#Later Zhou (後周) (951–960 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:lightgray;”

	Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period#Ten Kingdoms>Ten Kingdoms{{small	zh	Shih{{sup	2}}}}’’{{small		AD 907–979WINCHESTER	TITLE=BOMB, BOOK AND COMPASS: JOSEPH NEEDHAM AND THE GREAT SECRETS OF CHINA	URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=XAEB6KVHOCMC&Q=TEN+KINGDOMS+907-979&PG=PT246, 9780141889894, |72 years||	List of Chinese monarchs#Ten Kingdoms (十國) (907–979 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Former Shu}}{{small

zh

Ch῾ien{{sup

3}}}}’’{{small

TITLE=大动乱：中古时代：五代辽宋夏金

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=TKU8DWAAQBAJ&Q=前蜀+907-925&PG=PT214, 9787505141254, |18 years

Wang Jian (Former Shu)>Gaozu of Former Shu

Wang Zongyan>Wang Yan

List of Chinese monarchs#Former Shu (前蜀) (907–925 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Yang Wu}}{{small

zh

Yang{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

(AD 907–919)}}Royal{{small

(AD 927–937)}}

LAST2=WILES

TITLE=BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OF CHINESE WOMEN: TANG THROUGH MING, 618-1644

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=CW0PAWAAQBAJ&Q=YANG+WU+907-937&PG=PR21

ISBN=9780765643162, {{efn

Some historians consider AD 902, the year in which the Yang Xingmi

was proclaimed “Prince of Wu”, to be the start of the Yang Wu.LIU

TITLE=EVALUATIONS OF SUNG DYNASTY PAINTERS OF RENOWN

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=IAVATHWHF6MC&Q=YANG+WU+902-937&PG=PA34

ISBN=9789004089662, Accordingly, the Yang Wu was founded by the Emperor Taizu of Yang Wu and lasted 35 years.}}

name=“AlternativeYangWu“}}

Yang Wo>Liezu of Yang Wu{{efn|name=“AlternativeYangWu“}}

Yang Pu>Rui of Yang Wu

List of Chinese monarchs#Yang Wu (楊吳) (907–937 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Ma Chu}}{{small

zh

Ma{{sup

3}}}}’’{{small

(AD 907–930)}}Princely{{small|(AD 930–951)}}

TITLE=臺灣文學與中國童è¬

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=TXXCDWAAQBAJ&Q=楚+907-951&PG=PA172

ISBN=9789577398598, |44 years

Ma Yin>Wumu of Ma Chu|Ma Xichong

List of Chinese monarchs#Ma Chu (馬楚) (907–951 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

	Wuyue}}{{small	zh	Wu{{sup	4}}}}’’{{small			(AD 907–932, AD 937–978)}}Princely{{small|(AD 934–937)}}|AD 907–978|71 years	Qian Liu>Taizu of Wuyue	Qian Chu>Zhongyi of Qin	List of Chinese monarchs#Wuyue (吳越) (907–978 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Min (Ten Kingdoms)

}}{{small>{{transl

Mǐn}}}}’’{{small

3}}}}’’{{small

name=“ZhuWenjin”

Zhu Wenjin, surnamed Zhu (), was not a member of the Wang () clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.ZHANG

TITLE=天变：中国历代宫廷政变全景

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=W-NIDWAAQBAJ&Q=朱文進+闽&PG=PT309

(AD 909–933, AD 944–945)}}Imperial{{small|(AD 933–944, AD 945)}}|AD 909–945|36 years

Wang Shenzhi>Taizu of Min

Wang Yanzheng>Tiande

List of Chinese monarchs#Min (閩) (909–945 AD) & Yin (殷) (943–945 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

	Southern Han}}{{small	zh	Nan{{sup	4}}}}’’{{small			Liu Yan (emperor)>Gaozu of Southern Han	Liu Chang (Southern Han)>Liu Chang	List of Chinese monarchs#Southern Han (南漢) (917–971 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

	Jingnan}}{{small	zh	Ching{{sup	2}}}}’’{{small		name=“Gao”	Jingnan initially bore the surname Gao (). The Gao Jixing>Prince Wuxin of Chu subsequently adopted Zhu () as the surname, only to restore the surname Gao prior to the establishment of the Jingnan.GAO>FIRST1=LUJIA	YEAR=2015	ISBN=9787210077862, }}|Han|Princely|AD 924–963|39 years	Gao Jixing>Wuxin of Chu|Gao Jichong	List of Chinese monarchs#Jingnan (荊南) (924–963 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

	Later Shu}}{{small	zh	Hou{{sup	3}}}}’’{{small			Meng Zhixiang>Gaozu of Later Shu	Meng Chang>Gongxiao of Chu	List of Chinese monarchs#Later Shu (後蜀) (934–965 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Southern Tang}}{{small

zh

Nan{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

name=“Xu”

Southern Tang initially bore the surname Li (). The Li Bian>Emperor Liezu of Southern Tang subsequently adopted Xu () as the surname, only to restore the surname Li in AD 939 after the establishment of the Southern Tang.TAN>FIRST1=ZUOWEN

FIRST2=XI

YEAR=2006

PAGE=7

(AD 937–958)}}Royal{{small|(AD 958–976)}}

LAST2=CHIA

TITLE=SPREADING BUDDHA’S WORD IN EAST ASIA: THE FORMATION AND TRANSFORMATION OF THE CHINESE BUDDHIST CANON

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=IX7ICGAAQBAJ&Q=SOUTHERN+TANG+937-976&PG=PA175

ISBN=9780231540193, |37 years

Li Bian>Liezu of Southern Tang

Li Yu (Southern Tang)>Li Yu

List of Chinese monarchs#Southern Tang (南唐) (937–976 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:white;”

Northern Han}}{{small

zh

Pei{{sup

4}}}}’’{{small

name=“LiuJi’en”

Han Chinese>Han descent. Originally surnamed Xue (), he was an adopted member of the Liu () clan.CHE>FIRST1=DUN’AN

YEAR=1991

PAGE=237

name=“LiuJiyuan”

Liu Jiyuan>Emperor Yingwu of Northern Han was of Han Chinese

descent. Originally surnamed He (), he was an adopted member of the Liu () clan.CHEN

TITLE=中國歷代帝王大觀

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=K6MLAQAAMAAJ&Q=劉繼元+何氏

ISBN=9787218003474, His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.}}

name=“LiuJi’en“}}{{efn|name=“LiuJiyuan“}}|Imperial

TITLE=中国历代重大战争详解：隋唐战争史

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=C4YEDWAAQBAJ&Q=北汉+951-979&PG=PT222, 9787999031499, |28 years

Liu Chong>Shizu of Northern Han

Liu Jiyuan>Yingwu of Northern Han

List of Chinese monarchs#Northern Han (北漢) (951–979 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:#FFFDF9;“|

Liao dynasty}}{{small

zh

Liao{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

Yelü(File:Ei.ra.u.ud.svg>20px) (𘬜𘭪𘲚𘱪)

Khitan people>Khitan|Imperial

LAST2=LAPOLLA

TITLE=THE SINO-TIBETAN LANGUAGES

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=5MEWSTQ7F44C&Q=LIAO+DYNASTY+916-1125&PG=PA7

ISBN=9780700711291, {{efn

Some historians consider AD 907, the year in which the Abaoji

was proclaimed “Khagan of the Khitan people>Khitans”, to be the start of the Liao dynasty.LEIDY>FIRST1=DENISE

YEAR=2008

PAGE=189, 9781590306703, Accordingly, the Liao dynasty lasted 218 years.}}

name=“AlternativeLiao“}}

Abaoji>Taizu of Liao

Emperor Tianzuo of Liao>Tianzuo of Liao

List of emperors of the Liao dynasty#Emperors table>list)(tree)

style="background:white;“|

Qara Khitai

}}{{small>{{transl

XÄ« Liáo}}}}’’{{small

1}} Liao{{sup

}}

Yelü{{efn>name=“Kuchlug”

Kuchlug, originally without surname, was of Naimans>Naiman descent. As he was not a member of the Yelü () clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.Hsu (2012). p. 272.STONE>FIRST1=ZOFIA

YEAR=2017

ISBN=9789386367112, }}(File:Ei.ra.u.ud.svg|20px) (𘬜𘭪𘲚𘱪)

name=“Kuchlug“}}

(AD 1124–1132)}}Imperial{{small|(AD 1132–1218)}}

TITLE=A COMPANION TO CHINESE HISTORY

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=VHMXDQAAQBAJ&Q=WESTERN+LIAO+1124-1218&PG=PA130

ISBN=9781118624609, {{efn

Some historians consider AD 1132, the year in which the Yelü Dashi

was proclaimed “Gurkhan”, to be the start of the Qara Khitai>Western Liao.LEE>FIRST1=JOO-YUP

YEAR=2015

PAGE=59, 9789004306493, Accordingly, the Western Liao lasted 86 years.}}

name=“AlternativeWesternLiao“}}

Yelü Dashi>Dezong of Western Liao|Kuchlug

List of Chinese monarchs#Western Liao (西遼) (1124–1218 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:#FFFDF9;“|

Song dynasty#Northern Song, 960–1127

}}{{efn>name=“Song”

Song dynasty#Northern Song, 960–1127>Northern Song () and the Song dynasty#Southern Song, 1127–1279

() are collectively known as the Song dynasty (; {{transl>zh

4}} Ch῾ao{{sup

{{transl

BÄ›i Sòng}}}}’’{{small

3}} Sung{{sup

}}

House of Zhao>Zhao|Han|Imperial

TITLE=北宋的外戚與政治

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=C35CDWAAQBAJ&Q=北宋+960-1127&PG=PA3

ISBN=9789577399953, |167 years

Emperor Taizu of Song>Taizu of Song

Emperor Qinzong>Qinzong of Song

List of emperors of the Song dynasty#Northern Song, 960–1127>list)(tree)

style="background:#FFFDF9;“|

Song dynasty#Southern Song, 1127–1279

}}{{efn>name=“Song“}}{{small

zh

Nan{{sup

4}}}}’’{{small

House of Zhao>Zhao|Han|Imperial

TITLE=CELESTIAL WOMEN: IMPERIAL WIVES AND CONCUBINES IN CHINA FROM SONG TO QING

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=APBNCWAAQBAJ&Q=SOUTHERN+SONG+1127-1279&PG=PA24

ISBN=9781442255029, |152 years

Emperor Gaozong of Song>Gaozong of Song|Zhao Bing

List of emperors of the Song dynasty#Southern Song, 1127–1279>list)(tree)

style="background:white;“|

Western Xia}}{{small

zh

Hsi{{sup

4}}}}’’{{small

name=“Weiming”

Western Xia initially bore the surname Tuoba (). The Tang dynasty and the Song dynasty later bestowed the surnames Li () and Zhao () upon the family respectively. The Emperor Jingzong of Western Xia subsequently adopted Weiming () as the surname in AD 1032 prior to the establishment of the Western Xia.DANVER

TITLE=NATIVE PEOPLES OF THE WORLD: AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GROUPS, CULTURES AND CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=VF4TBWAAQBAJ&Q=WESTERN+XIA+WEIMING&PG=PA244

ISBN=9781317464006, }}{{Tangut

L2339 L1903}}

Tangut people>Tangut|Imperial

LAST2=SCHAEFFER

TITLE=THE TIBETAN HISTORY READER

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=REWEJ02XEL8C&Q=WESTERN+XIA+1038-1227&PG=PA562

ISBN=9780231513548, |189 years

Emperor Jingzong of Western Xia>Jingzong of Western Xia

Emperor Mo of Western Xia>Li Xian

List of Chinese monarchs#Western Xia (西夏) (1038–1227 AD)>list)(tree)

style="background:#FFFDF9;“|

Jin dynasty (1115–1234)

}}{{efn>name=“Jin2“}}{{small

zh

Chin{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

Wanyan(File:Wo-on gia-an.png>35px)

Jurchen people>Jurchen|Imperial

TITLE=SONG BLUE AND WHITE PORCELAIN ON THE SILK ROAD

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=IABEQXUFMHIC&Q=JIN+DYNASTY+1115-1234&PG=PA77

ISBN=978-9004218598, |119 years

Emperor Taizu of Jin>Taizu of Jin

Emperor Mo of Jin>Wanyan Chenglin

List of Chinese monarchs#Jin dynasty (金朝) (1115–1234 AD)>list)(tree)

!colspan=“10“|Late Imperial China{{efn|name=“ChineseEmpire2“}} style="background:#FFFDF9;“|

Yuan dynasty}}{{small

zh

Yüan{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

Borjigin{{efn>name=“Borjigin1”

Yuan dynasty initially bore the surname Kiyad (). Bodonchar Munkhag>Borjigin Munkhag and Khabul Khan

respectively adopted Borjigin () and Kiyad-Borjigin () as the surname prior to the establishment of the Yuan dynasty. The Yesugei>Emperor Liezu of Yuan subsequently restored Borjigin as the surname prior to the establishment of the Yuan dynasty.}}{{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠣᠷᠵᠢᠭᠢᠨ}}

Mongols>Mongol|Imperial

TITLE=CIVIL SOCIETY IN CHINA: THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE “NEW REFORM ERA”

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=2X-ACAAAQBAJ&Q=YUAN+DYNASTY+1271-1368&PG=PA40

ISBN=9780190297640, {{efn

Some historians consider AD 1260, the year in which the Kublai Khan

was proclaimed “Khagan of the Mongol Empire>Great Mongol State” and declared the era name “Zhongtong” (), to be the start of the Yuan dynasty.WEST

LAST2=IDEMA

TITLE=THE ORPHAN OF ZHAO AND OTHER YUAN PLAYS: THE EARLIEST KNOWN VERSIONS

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=BG8KBQAAQBAJ&Q=YUAN+DYNASTY+1260-1368&PG=PR9

ISBN=9780231538107, Accordingly, the Yuan dynasty lasted 108 years.}}

name=“AlternativeYuan“}}

Kublai Khan>Shizu of Yuan

Toghon Temür>Huizong of Yuan

List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty#List of emperors>list)(tree)

style="background:white;“|

Northern Yuan}}{{small

zh

Pei{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

Borjigin{{efn>name=“Borjigin2”

Northern Yuan initially bore the surname Kiyad (). Bodonchar Munkhag>Borjigin Munkhag and Khabul Khan

respectively adopted Borjigin () and Kiyad-Borjigin () as the surname prior to the establishment of the Northern Yuan. The Yesugei>Emperor Liezu of Yuan subsequently restored Borjigin as the surname prior to the establishment of the Northern Yuan.}}{{efn

Esen Taishi

, surnamed Choros (Oirats)>Choros (), was of Oirats

descent. As he was not a member of the Borjigin () clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.HUANG

TITLE=帝国的慢性病：冰火大明

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=TBW1DWAAQBAJ&Q=也先+绰罗斯&PG=PT40

LAST2=LI

LAST3=JIE

LAST4=LIU

TITLE=古代民族史（下）

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=CH3IDWAAQBAJ&Q=也先+绰罗斯&PG=PT7, }}{{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠣᠷᠵᠢᠭᠢᠨ}}

name=“ChorosEsen“}}|Imperial

TITLE=THE HISTORY OF CENTRAL ASIA: THE AGE OF ISLAM AND THE MONGOLS

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=7EIWDWAAQBAJ&Q=NORTHERN+YUAN+1368-1635&PG=PT437

name=“AlternativeNorthernYuan”

Northern Yuan to have ended in either AD 1388 or AD 1402 when the dynastic name “Great Yuan” was abolished.LIU

TITLE=甘肃文史精萃2：学术卷

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=UY-EDWAAQBAJ&Q=北元鞑靼&PG=PT160

TITLE=少数民族入主中国史略

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=JHE6DWAAQBAJ&Q=北元1402&PG=PA223

ISBN=9781387255351, Accordingly, the Northern Yuan lasted either 20 years or 34 years, and its last ruler was either the Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür

or the Örüg Temür Khan. However, some historians regard the Mongol-ruled regime that existed from AD 1388 or AD 1402 up to AD 1635—referred to in the History of Ming as “Dada” ()—as a direct continuation of the Northern Yuan.MAY>FIRST1=TIMOTHY

YEAR=2016

PAGES=26–28, 9781610693400, }}

name=“AlternativeNorthernYuan“}}

Toghon Temür>Huizong of Yuan

Ejei Khan>Borjigin Erke Khongghor{{efn|name=“AlternativeNorthernYuan“}}

List of Northern Yuan khans#List of khans>list)(tree)

style="background:#FFFDF9;“|

Ming dynasty}}{{small

zh

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2}}}}’’{{small

House of Zhu>Zhu|Han|Imperial

TITLE=甲申詩史：吳梅村書寫的一六四四

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=N_-XBQAAQBAJ&Q=明朝+1368-1644&PG=PA2

ISBN=9789888310111, |276 years

Hongwu Emperor>Hongwu

Chongzhen Emperor>Chongzhen

List of emperors of the Ming dynasty#Emperors of the Ming dynasty>list)(tree)

style="background:white;“|

Southern Ming}}{{small

zh

Nan{{sup

2}}}}’’{{small

House of Zhu>Zhu|Han|Imperial

TITLE=天崩地裂時代下的皇族

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=X2I1DWAAQBAJ&Q=南明+1644-1662&PG=PA2

ISBN=9789620773419, {{efn

Some historians consider AD 1664, the year in which the reign of the Zhu Benli

came to an end, to be the end of the Southern Ming.JENCO

LAST2=IDRIS

LAST3=THOMAS

TITLE=THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF COMPARATIVE POLITICAL THEORY

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=AMHADWAAQBAJ&Q=SOUTHERN+MING+1644-1664&PG=PA96

ISBN=9780190086244, Accordingly, the Southern Ming lasted 20 years and its last ruler was the Dingwu Emperor. However, the existence and identity of the Dingwu Emperor, supposedly reigned from AD 1646 to AD 1664, are disputed.}}

name=“AlternativeSouthernMing“}}

Zhu Yousong>Hongguang

Zhu Youlang>Yongli{{efn|name=“AlternativeSouthernMing“}}

List of emperors of the Ming dynasty#Emperors of the Southern Ming dynasty>list)(tree)

style="background:white;“|

Later Jin (1616–1636)

}}{{efn>name=“LaterJin“}}{{small

zh

Hou{{sup

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House of Aisin-Gioro>Aisin Gioro{{ManchuSibeUnicode

ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨᡤᡳᠣᡵᠣ|style=text-align:left}}

name=“Jurchen”

Jurchen people>Jurchen ethnic group was renamed “Manchu people

” in AD 1635 by the Hong Taiji>Emperor Taizong of Qing.ELLIOTT>FIRST1=MARK

YEAR=2001

PAGE=71

TITLE=A TRANSLUCENT MIRROR: HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN QING IMPERIAL IDEOLOGY

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=HBEWDWAAQBAJ&Q=JURCHEN+MANCHU+1635&PG=PA193

ISBN=9780520234246, }}|Royal

TITLE=CHINA’S HEGEMONY: FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF EAST ASIAN DOMINATION

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=EAWMDQAAQBAJ&Q=LATER+JIN+1616-1636&PG=PA236

ISBN=9780231542173, |20 years

Nurhaci>Tianming

Hong Taiji>Taizong of Qing

List of emperors of the Qing dynasty#List of emperors>list)(tree)

style="background:#FFFDF9;“|

China

size=30px}}{{big

Qing dynasty}}{{small>{{transl

QÄ«ng Cháo}}}}’’{{small

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House of Aisin-Gioro>Aisin Gioro{{ManchuSibeUnicode

ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨᡤᡳᠣᡵᠣ|style=text-align:left}}

Manchu people>Manchu|Imperial

TITLE=MAPPING CHENGDE: THE QING LANDSCAPE ENTERPRISE

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=TAFF7D-7YSEC&Q=QING+DYNASTY+1636-1912&PG=PA13

ISBN=9780824822934, {{efn

The Articles of Favourable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor after His Abdication

allowed the Puyi>Xuantong Emperor to retain his imperial title and enjoy other privileges following his abdication, resulting in the existence of a titular court in the Forbidden City known as the “Remnant Court of the Abdicated Qing Imperial Family” () between AD 1912 and AD 1924.HAO

TITLE=CHINA’S SOLUTION TO ITS ETHNO-NATIONAL ISSUES

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=QCM1DWAAQBAJ&Q=ARTICLES+OF+FAVORABLE+TREATMENT+OF+THE+GREAT+QING+EMPEROR+AFTER+HIS+ABDICATION&PG=PA51

ISBN=9789813295193, Following the Beijing Coup, Feng Yuxiang revoked the privileges and abolished the titular court in AD 1924.}}{{efn

The Qing dynasty was briefly Manchu Restoration

between 1 July 1917 and 12 July 1917 when Zhang Xun reinstalled the Puyi>Xuantong Emperor to the Chinese throne. Due to the abortive nature of the event, it is usually excluded from Qing history.}}|276 years

Hong Taiji>Taizong of Qing

Puyi>Xuantong

List of emperors of the Qing dynasty#List of emperors>list)(tree)

{{box|wide=yes|background=white|align=center|border size=1px|text align=left|header=Legend|{{legend|#FFFDF9|Dynasties of relatively great significance}}{{legend|lightgray|Major time periods}}{{legend|#FFA25E|Dynasties counted among the “Three Kingdoms“}}{{legend|#5E7EFF|Dynasties counted among the “Sixteen Kingdoms“{{efn|name=“SixteenKingdoms“}}}}{{legend|#60FF5E|Dynasties counted among the “Northern dynasties” within the broader “Northern and Southern dynasties“}}{{legend|#C05EFF|Dynasties counted among the “Southern dynasties” within the broader “Northern and Southern dynasties“}}{{legend|#FFEB5E|Dynasties counted among the “Five Dynasties” within the broader “Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms“}}{{legend|#FF5E96|Dynasties counted among the “Ten Kingdoms” within the broader “Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms“}}}}{{box|wide=yes|background=white|align=center|border size=1px|text align=left|header=Criteria for inclusion|This list includes only the major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines. Many other dynastic regimes existed within or overlapped with the geographical boundaries specified in the definition of “China” in the study of Chinese historical geography.{{efn|name=“HistoricalGeography“|As proposed by scholars such as Tan Qixiang, the geographical extent of “China” as defined in Chinese historical geography largely corresponds with the territories once ruled by the Qing dynasty during its territorial peak between the AD 1750s and the AD 1840s, prior to the outbreak of the First Opium War.BOOK, Wang, Hongying, 中国式民主的类型学意义——一种宪法学视角的阐释, 2016,books.google.com/books?id=KolVDwAAQBAJ&q=中国历史地理学+地域范围+谭其骧+清朝&pg=PT202, 9787516181829, At its height, the Qing dynasty exercised jurisdiction over an area larger than 13 million km{{sup|2}}, encompassing:BOOK, Wang, Fei-ling, The China Order: Centralia, World Empire, and the Nature of Chinese Power, 2017,books.google.com/books?id=chUwDwAAQBAJ&q=qing+dynasty+13+million+square+km&pg=PA68, 68, 9781438467504, BOOK, Gao, James, Historical Dictionary of Modern China (1800–1949), 2009,books.google.com/books?id=wJrLhcgog8oC&q=qing+dynasty+13+million+sq+km&pg=PR36, xxxvi, 9780810863088, BOOK, Yang, Yi, 一本書讀懂亞洲史, 2018,books.google.com/books?id=ev2FDwAAQBAJ&q=1300%E8%90%AC%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E5%85%AC%E9%87%8C+%E6%B8%85%E6%9C%9D&pg=PT148, 145, 9789863921165,

• Tannu Uriankhai in the north;BOOK, Wang, Zhenmin, Relationship Between the Chinese Central Authorities and Regional Governments of Hong Kong and Macao: A Legal Perspective, 2018,books.google.com/books?id=f3dvDwAAQBAJ&q=Tannu+Uriankhai+qing+dynasty&pg=PA35, 35, 9789811323225,
• Stanovoy Range and Sakhalin in the northeast;BOOK, China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization, 2007,books.google.com/books?id=z-fAxn_9f8wC&q=Outer+Khingan+Range+qing+dynasty&pg=PA107, 107, 9789629371401, BOOK, Zhang, Qizhi, Wang, Tianyou, Cheng, Chongde, 元明清史, 2002,books.google.com/books?id=YXR8oHuHgZsC&q=%E6%B8%85%E6%9C%9D%E7%96%86%E5%9F%9F%E5%9B%9B%E8%87%B3%E8%8C%83%E5%9B%B4&pg=PA381, 381, 9789571128696, Gan (2019). p. 26.
• Taiwan and its adjacent islands in the southeast;
• Hainan and the South China Sea Islands in the south;BOOK, Talmon, Stefan, Jia, Bing Bing, The South China Sea Arbitration: A Chinese Perspective, 2014,books.google.com/books?id=TzTaBAAAQBAJ&q=qing+dynasty+south+china+sea&pg=PA186, 186, 9781782253754,
• Pamir Mountains in the west;BOOK, Roy, Kaushik, Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400–1750: Cavalry, Guns, Government and Ships, 2014,books.google.com/books?id=KyVnAwAAQBAJ&q=qing+dynasty+lake+balkhash+Pamir+Mountains&pg=PA87, 86–87, 9781780938004,
• Lake Balkhash in the northwest.

Modern Chinese historiography considers all regimes, regardless of the ethnicity of the ruling class, that were established within or overlapped with the above geographical boundaries to be part of Chinese history.BOOK, Lin, Fu, 中国历史地理学研究, 2006,books.google.com/books?id=bLltAAAAIAAJ&q=中国历史地理学+曾经在这个范围内活动的民族都是中国历史上的民族, 142–143, 9787211050840, BOOK, Wu, Chuanjun, Yang, Qinye, Lu, Qi, 20世纪中国学术大典：地理学, 2002,books.google.com/books?id=erzI3apM1iUC&q=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6+%E6%9B%BE%E7%BB%8F%E5%9C%A8%E8%BF%99%E4%B8%AA%E8%8C%83%E5%9B%B4%E5%86%85%E6%B4%BB%E5%8A%A8%E7%9A%84%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E9%83%BD%E6%98%AF%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E4%B8%8A%E7%9A%84%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F&pg=PA297, 297, 9787533430221, Similarly, all ethnic groups that were active within the above geographical boundaries are considered ethnicities of China. Regions outside of the above geographical boundaries but were under Chinese rule during various historical periods are included in the histories of the respective Chinese dynasties.}} These were:JOURNAL, Ge, Jianxiong, Hua, Linfu, 2002, The Development of Chinese Historical Geography over the Last 50 Years (1950–2000),ccs.ncl.edu.tw/newsletter_84/016_027.pdf, Newsletter for Research in Chinese Studies, 21, 4, 20, 24 November 2019,

• Dynastic regimes that existed within the fengjian system: e.g., State of Deng, State of Huo, State of Chu, State of Yiqu
• Dynastic regimes that existed within the jimi system: e.g., Xuanque Prefecture (), Zhulong Prefecture (), Maolian Guard (), Jianzhou Left Guard ()
• Dynastic regimes that existed within the tusi system: e.g., Chiefdom of Bozhou, Chiefdom of Shuidong, Chiefdom of Yongning, Chiefdom of Tsanlha
• Localized dynastic regimes: e.g., Nanyue, Tuyuhun, Dali Kingdom, Kingdom of Tungning
• Short-lived dynastic regimes: e.g., Zhai Wei, Northern Liao, Chen Han, Shun dynasty
• Regional dynastic regimes that ruled an area historically or currently associated with “China”: e.g., Rouran Khaganate, Tibetan Empire, Bohai, Kara-Khanid Khanate

Dynasties that belonged to the following categories are excluded from this list:

• Dynasties outside of “China” with full or partial Chinese ancestry: e.g., Early Lý dynasty of Vietnam, Thonburi dynasty of SiamBOOK, Vu, Hong Lien, Sharrock, Peter, Descending Dragon, Rising Tiger: A History of Vietnam, 2014,books.google.com/books?id=PuBXBQAAQBAJ&q=Lý+Bôn+China&pg=PT43, 9781780233888, BOOK, Walker, Hugh, East Asia: A New History, 2012,books.google.com/books?id=GBvRs-za0CIC&q=Ly+Bon+Chinese&pg=PA134, 134, 9781477265178, BOOK, Chansiri, Disaphol, The Chinese Émigrés of Thailand in the Twentieth Century, 2008,books.google.com/books?id=xEMsg-FkbJIC&q=Thonburi+dynasty+Chinese&pg=PA47, 46–47, 9781934043745, BOOK, Zheng, Yangwen, China on the Sea: How the Maritime World Shaped Modern China, 2011,books.google.com/books?id=5bAyAQAAQBAJ&q=Thonburi+dynasty+Chinese&pg=PA112, 112, 9789004194786,
• Dynasties that ruled Chinese tributary states outside of “China”: e.g., Đinh dynasty of Vietnam, First Shō dynasty of the Ryukyu IslandsBOOK, Rutherford, Scott, Vietnam, 2002,books.google.com/books?id=kRi_BKq60OgC&dq=dinh+dynasty+chinese+tributary&pg=PA20, 20, 9789812349842, BOOK, Minahan, James, Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia, 2014,books.google.com/books?id=oZCOAwAAQBAJ&q=first+sho+dynasty+tributary+china&pg=PA231, 231, 9781610690188,
• Dynasties outside of “China” which identified themselves as “China”: e.g., Joseon dynasty of Korea, Nguyá»…n dynasty of VietnamBOOK, Elman, Benjamin, Liu, Jenny, The ‘Global’ and the ‘Local’ in Early Modern and Modern East Asia, 2017,books.google.com/books?id=Vt3zDQAAQBAJ&q=little+china+%E5%B0%8F%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E&pg=PA175, 175, 9789004338128, BOOK, Chan, Robert, Korea-China Relations in History and Contemporary Implications, 2017,books.google.com/books?id=_XIzDwAAQBAJ&q=little+china+%E5%B0%8F%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E&pg=PA10, 10, 9783319622651, BOOK, Xie, Xuanjun, 第三中国论, 2016,books.google.com/books?id=3gh2CwAAQBAJ&q=%E8%B6%8A%E5%8D%97+%E9%98%AE%E6%9C%9D+%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E8%87%AA%E5%B1%85&pg=PA202, 202, 9781329800250, BOOK, Wu, Weiming, 東亞易學史論：《周易》在日韓越琉的傳播與影響, 2017,books.google.com/books?id=iXU3DwAAQBAJ&q=%E8%B6%8A%E5%8D%97+%E9%98%AE%E6%9C%9D+%E5%B0%8F%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E&pg=PA161, 161, 9789863502500,
• Dynasties that ruled Sinicized states outside of “China”: e.g., Baekje dynasty of Korea, Later Lê dynasty of VietnamBOOK, Linduff, Katheryn, Rubinson, Karen, Are All Warriors Male?: Gender Roles on the Ancient Eurasian Steppe, 2008,books.google.com/books?id=Xd5bAAAAQBAJ&dq=sinicized+baekje&pg=PA126, 126, 9781461647508, BOOK, Chan, Yuk Wah, Vietnamese-Chinese Relationships at the Borderlands: Trade, Tourism and Cultural Politics, 2013,books.google.com/books?id=cjoVAgAAQBAJ&dq=le+dynasty+sinicization&pg=PA28, 28, 9781134494576, }}

Timelines

{{Further|Timeline of Chinese history}}

Timeline of major historical periods

{{Stacked bar|A1=1299|T1=Xia–Shang–W. Zhou|A2=295Spring and Autumn period>Spring and Autumn|A3=255Warring States period>Warring States|A4=441|T4=Qin–Han|A5=369|T5=Jin–Northern and Southern Dynasties|A6=318|T6=Sui–Tang|A7=461|T7=Five Dynasties–Liao–Song–W. Xia–Jin–Yuan|A8=544|T8=Ming–Qing|A9=110|T9=ROC–PRC|Total=4092 }}

Timeline of major regimes

ImageSize = width:1600 height:auto barincrement:15PlotArea = top:10 bottom:30 right:210 left:20AlignBars = earlyDateFormat = yyyyPeriod = from:-2500 till:2000TimeAxis = orientation:horizontalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:200 start:-2500Colors = Backgroundcolors = canvas:canvasBarData = PlotData=



{{box|background=white|align=center|border size=1px|text align=left|header=Legend|{{legend|#FF3399|Protodynastic rulers}}{{legend|#FF9933|Dynastic regimes{{efn|name=“Timeline“|The dynastic regimes included in this timeline are the same as the list above.}}}}{{legend|#009900|Non-dynastic regimes}}}}

See also

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}

• 1911 Revolution
• Administration of territory in dynastic China
• Ancient Chinese states
• Chinese expansionism
• Chinese historiography
• Chinese sovereign
• Conquest dynasty
• Debate on the Chineseness of Yuan and Qing dynasties
• Dragon Throne
• Dynastic cycle
• Eighteen Kingdoms
• Emperor at home, king abroad
• Emperor of China
• Family tree of Chinese monarchs (ancient)
• Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)
• Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)
• Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)
• Family tree of Chinese monarchs (Warring States period)
• Fanzhen
• Fengjian
• Golden ages of China
• Historical capitals of China
• Jiedushi
• Jimi system
• List of Chinese monarchs
• List of Confucian states and dynasties
• List of Mongol states
• List of recipients of tribute from China
• List of tributary states of China
• List of Vietnamese dynasties
• Little China (ideology)
• Mandate of Heaven
• Monarchy of China
• Names of China
• Pax Sinica
• Sinosphere
• Six Dynasties
• Succession to the Chinese throne
• Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors
• Tianxia
• Timeline of Chinese history
• Tributary system of China
• Tusi
• Twenty-Four Histories
• Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project
• Zhonghua minzu

{{div col end}}

Notes

{{Notelist}}

References

Citations

{{Reflist}}

Sources

• China Handbook Editorial Committee, China Handbook Series: History (trans., Dun J. Li), Beijing, 1982, pp. 188–189; and Shao Chang Lee, “China Cultural Development” (wall chart), East Lansing, 1984.
• BOOK, Wilkinson, Endymion Porter, 2018, Chinese History: A New Manual, 5th, Harvard University Asia Center, Cambridge, MA, 9780998888309, Specifically Section A.2 “Dynasties”, in this and earlier editions, which includes subsections on “Naming the Dynasties”, “Sets of Dynasties”, “The Dynastic Cycle”, “Legitimate Succession”, “Grade School History” (the effect on common understanding of China’s history).

External links

{{Commons category|Dynasties of China}}

• Columbia University. The Dynasties Song
• Tan Qixiang. The Historical Atlas of China

{{Chinese Imperial Government}}{{authority control}}