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Northern Yuan
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{{short description|Former empire in East Asia}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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- Customary rulesWilliam Elliott Butler. The Mongolian legal system, p. 3.}}
Name
The regime that existed between 1368 and 1635 is known by various names, including the Northern Yuan (dynasty).Jae-un Kang, Suzanne Lee, Sook Pyo Lee, "The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism" The dynastic name of "Great Yuan'" ({{zh |c = 大å |p = Dà Yuán }}) was officially used between 1368 and 1388, as was the preceding Yuan dynasty. Following the death of Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür, the "Great Yuan" dynastic name along with other Han-style imperial titles were abandoned by his successor Jorightu Khan Yesüder; hence, the name "Northern Yuan" is sometimes limited in its usage to referencing only the period between 1368 and 1388.Luc Kwanten, "Imperial Nomads: A History of Central Asia, 500â1500" The historiographical term "Northern Yuan" in the English language is derived from the corresponding term "åå " (BÄi Yuán) in the Chinese language, in which the prefix "Northern" is used to distinguish between the Yuan dynasty established in 1271 and the regime that existed after 1368. The historiographical name "Northern Yuan" first appeared in the Korean historical text Goryeosa written in Classical Chinese.BOOK, Jeong In-ji, ãé«éºå²â§å·ç¬¬ååä¸â§ä¸å®¶ç¬¬ååä¸â§ææçå ã, 1972,weblink zh, åå é¼é½çå¹³ç« åçãçå³ä¸ç欲æ¸é大æï¼æ ®é·å± æ°ï¼ä»¥é¼é½æ¬æå°ï¼è¥æåè«å½ï¼å¯å é·å¾ï¼é£ä½¿ä¾åã, 2022-02-22,weblink Some scholars believe that the reign of Dayan Khan whose regnal name "Dayan" came from the Chinese term "大å " (Dà Yuán; lit. "Great Yuan").JOURNAL, Okada, Hidehiro, Dayan Khan as a Yuan Emperor: The Political Legitimacy in 15th Century Mongolia, Bulletin de l'Ãcole Française d'Extrême-Orient, 1994, 81,weblink 52â53, 10.3406/befeo.1994.2245, Contrary to this, other views hold that the title "Dayan" is derived from the Mongolian word means "origin" or "whole".JOURNAL, Morikawa, Tetsuo, 大å ã®è¨æ¶ Memory of the Dai Yuan ulus (the Great Yuan dynasty), æ¯è¼ç¤¾ä¼æå: ä¹å·å¤§å¦å¤§å¦é¢æ¯è¼ç¤¾ä¼æåå¦åºç´è¦, 2008-03-20, 14, 6â7, 10.15017/9498,weblink Graduate School of Social and Cultural Studies, Kyushu University, ja, Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that Taisun Khan, Esen Taishi, Manduul Khan, and Ligdan Khan had also used the "Great Yuan" dynastic name and Han-style imperial titles during their rule.BOOK, David M. Robinson, In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia, 2019, Cambridge University Press, 978-1108482448, 51, In English, the term "Northern Yuan (dynasty)" is generally used to cover the entire period from 1368 to 1635 for historiographical purpose. Apart from "Great Yuan" (before 1388 and during the rule of Esen TaishiJOURNAL, Henry, Serruys, Notes on a Few Mongolian Rulers of the 15th Century, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1956, 76, 2, 82â90, 10.2307/595075, 595075,weblink sent by Esen-tayisi with a document wherein he called himself Great Qayan T'ien-sheng of the. Great Yuan.s The document was dated the first., ), the Mongols called their regime "Ikh Mongol Uls", meaning the "Great Mongol State". It is also referred to as "Post-Imperial Mongolia", the " Mongol(ian) Khaganate" or the "Mongol(ian) Khanate"(Ðага Ñ Ð°Ð°Ð´Ñн үеийн Ðонгол ÑлÑ; Ð.ÐÐ¾Ñ â Ðонгол Ñ Ð¸Ð¹Ð³ÑÑд ÐвÑазийн Ð´Ð¸Ð¿Ð»Ð¾Ð¼Ð°Ñ ÑаÑÑÑиÑ, II боÑÑ) in some modern sources,Reuven Amitai-Preiss, Reuven Amitai, David Morgan-The Mongol empire and its legacy, p. 275. Although most of these English terms can also refer to the Mongol Empire or the Yuan dynasty in the 13th and the 14th centuries.In chronicles written in the Mongolian language, this period is also known as "The Forty and the Four" (Döchin Dörben), meaning forty tümen of Eastern Mongols (Eastern Mongolia) and four tümen of Western Mongols.{{NoteTag|In the 17th century the memory of the Yuan had faded among the Mongols, although editors of chronicles described in the 18th century mentioned clearly that Kublai was the founder of the Yuan dynasty.}} Mongolian historiography also uses the term "Period of political disunion", "Period of small khagans", "Mongolia's period of political disruption" and "Mongolia's 14thâ17th century", etc.WEB,weblink Ð£Ð»Ñ ÑÓ©Ñийн бÑÑÑалÑн үеийн Ðонгол, Political disruption in Ancient Mongolia, Mongolcom, 3 August 2016, 2 February 2018, 12 August 2019,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20190812085836weblink">weblink dead, WEB,weblink ÐонголÑн ÑÒ¯Ò¯Ñ 3-Ñ Ð±Ð¾ÑÑ, Mongolian History Volume 3, Ð.ÐамаÑÑн, Ðонгол ÑлÑÑн ÑÒ¯Ò¯Ñ , 2003, 2 February 2018, 5 March 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160305173524weblink">weblink dead, The Chinese Ming Dynasty called them âTatarâ ({{zh |c = éé¼ |p = Dádá }}) and âWalaâ (Oirats, {{zh |c = ç¦å |p = WÇlà }}) after the Mongols were divided into eastern and western parts.WEB, éå¾è è´¾æ¬é¢, éé¼ Tatar,weblink Encyclopedia of China, ææ人æéæ®èå¤é«åçåå æ¿æåå ¶æ²»ä¸çèå¤æ称为éé¼ã,History
{{see also|Timeline of the Northern Yuan}}Origin
The Northern Yuan dynasty was the remnant of the Yuan dynasty (1271â1368) founded by Kublai Khan. After eliminating the Song dynasty in 1279, the Yuan dynasty ruled all of China proper for about a century. Even prior to the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols had ruled Northern China for more than 40 years, since the time they conquered the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in 1234.Yuan rule in China proper began to collapse in 1344 when the Yellow River flooded and changed course, causing widespread droughts, flooding, and making the Grand Canal impassable.{{sfn|Twitchett|1994|p=574}} In 1351, the Red Turban Rebellion erupted in the Huai River valley, which saw the rise of Zhu Yuanzhang, a Han peasant, who eventually established the Ming dynasty (1368â1644) in southern China. In 1368, a Ming army advanced on the Yuan capital Khanbaliq or Dadu (present-day Beijing).{{sfn|Twitchett|1998|p=120}}Retreat to Mongolian Steppe (1368â1388)
File:Mongolia in the early 15th century.jpg|thumb|left|Ming dynasty and the Northern Yuan in the early 15th century. The Mongols lost some lands in China properChina properToghon Temür (r. 1333â1370), the last ruler of the Yuan, fled north to Shangdu (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) from Dadu upon the approach of Ming forces. He tried to regain Dadu but failed and died in Yingchang (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death.{{sfn|Twitchett|1998|p=120}}The Mongols retreated to Karakorum in the Mongol heartland after the fall of Yingchang in 1370, where they maintained the official dynastic title "Great Yuan", known retroactively as the "Northern Yuan". The Ming army pursued the Yuan remnants into the Mongolian steppe in 1372 but was defeated by Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara (r. 1370â1378) and his general Köke Temür (d. 1375). In 1375, Naghachu, a Mongol official of Biligtu Khan in Liaoyang province invaded Liaodong with the aim of restoring Mongol power in China proper. Although he continued to hold southern Manchuria, Naghachu eventually surrendered to the Ming dynasty in 1387â88.Willard J. Peterson, John King Fairbank, Denis Twitchett' The Cambridge History of China, vol. 7, p. 158 The Yuan loyalists under the Kublaid prince Basalawarmi (the Prince of Liang) in Yunnan and Guizhou were also defeated and killed by the Ming earlier in 1381â82.Raoul Naroll, Vern L. Bullough, Frada Naroll. Military deterrence in history: a pilot cross-historical survey, p. 97In 1380, the Ming invaded Northern Yuan and sacked Karakorum, although they were eventually forced to withdraw. Around 70,000 Mongol captives were taken. In 1387, the Ming defeated the Uriankhai Mongols, and in the following year they achieved decisive victory around the Buir Lake against Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür.Michael Prawdin, The Mongol Empire, its Rise and Legacy p. 389. Collier-MacMillan Ltd. Toronto The defeat of Uskhal Khan effectively shattered Yuan power in the steppes and allowed the Western Oirat Mongols to rise and become kingmaker of the Northern Yuan realm.H. H. Howorth. History of the Mongols, part I. The Mongols proper and the KalmuksThe Genghisid (Major descendants of KublaiÐалай Ч., ÐонголÑн ÑÒ¯Ò¯Ñ (1260-1388), гÑÑÐ³Ð°Ð°Ñ Ð´ÑвÑÑÑ, УÐ., 1992) rulers of the Northern Yuan also buttressed their claim on China,John Man. The Great Wall: The Extraordinary Story of China's Wonder of the World, p. 183The Cambridge History of China, Vol 7, p. 193, 1988 and held tenaciously to the title of Emperor (or Great Khan) of the Great Yuan (Dai Yuwan Khaan, or 大å å¯æ±)Carney T. Fisher, "Smallpox, Sales-men, and Sectarians: Ming-Mongol relations in the Jiang-jing reign (1552â67)", Ming studies 25 to resist the Ming who had by this time become the real ruler in China proper. According to the traditional Chinese political orthodoxy, there could be only one legitimate dynasty whose rulers were blessed by Heaven to rule as Emperor of China (see Mandate of Heaven), so the Ming also denied the Yuan remnants' legitimacy as emperors of China, although the Ming did consider the previous Yuan which it had succeeded to be a legitimate dynasty.Oirat domination (1388â1478)
{{See also|Four Oirat}}(File:Map_of_the_Oirat_Confederation.png|thumb|Location of the Oirats)In 1388, the Mongol throne was taken over by Jorightu Khan Yesüder, a descendant of Arik Böke (Tolui's son), with the support of the Oirats. He abolished the Han-style title of former Yuan dynasty.BOOK, äºä¸æ²», ããã¯ã¿ã¤ï¼ã»ãã§ã³ï¼ãã³ã¿ã¤ã¸ã®ç 究, 2002, 風éæ¸æ¿, Japanese, BOOK, ä¸è¯æ°ååé²é¨å²æ¿å±, ãä¸åæ°å²å¤§è¾å ¸: æ°å½¹ä¹é¨ã, Taipei, Taiwan, é»ææå, 1989, 347, 9571600032,weblink zh, èå 人èªè±å¤æ¯å¸æ¨å 被ç§ä»¥å¾ï¼å §çä¸æ¯ãæ¸å³ä¹å¾ï¼å·²ä¸ç¥å ¶æåèãå¸èãç¸ç¹¼ç¯¡ç«è ï¼çèªç¨±çºãæ±ãï¼ä¸¦æ¹ååçºãéé¼ãï¼ç±æ¼å ¶å µåå·²ä¸å¦åè¿å¡å¤æä¹çï¼æ å ¶çºæ£ä¹è¼ã, 2022-02-22,weblink BOOK, Nankai University, ãåé大å¸å¸å ±ï¼å²å¸ç¤¾æç§å¸çã, Tianjin, åé大å¸å¸å ±ç·¨è¼¯å®¤, 1992, 46,weblink zh, åéå åæ±ï¼ä¹ç¡æ¼¢èªå»èãæ¤å¾èå¤æ·ä»£è«¸æ±éç¶æç³»ä¸åï¼ä½é½æ¯åªæèèªå°èæè«¡èï¼èä¸åææ¼¢èªå»èãå ææ¼¢èªå¹´èè³å¤©å èæ¢ï¼åéå åæ±ä¸ç«æ¼¢èªå¹´èï¼ä»¥å¾çèå¤è«¸æ±ä¹ä¸å建ç«æ¼¢èªå¹´èã, 2022-02-22,weblink In the following year, one of Uskhal Khan's subjects, Gunashiri, a descendant of Chagatai Khan, founded his own small state called Kara Del in Hami.Ed. Reuven Amitai-Preiss, Reuven Amitai, David Morgan-The Mongol empire and its legacy, p. 294The following century saw a succession of Genghisid rulers, many of whom were mere figureheads put on the throne by those warlords who happened to be the most powerful. From the end of the 14th century there appear designations such as "period of small kings" (Ðага Ñ Ð°Ð°Ð´Ñн үе).Bat-Ochir Bold. Mongolian nomadic society, p. 93 On one side stood the Western Mongols and on the other the Eastern Mongols. While the Oirats drew their khans from the descendants of Ariq Böke and other princes, Arugtai of the Asud supported the old Yuan khans of Kublaid descent. The House of Ogedei also briefly attempted to reunite the Mongols under their rule.The Mongols eventually split into three main groups: the Oirats in the west, the Uriankhai in northeast, and the Khorchin between the two. The Uriankhai surrendered to the Ming dynasty in the 1390s. The Ming divided them into the Three Guards: Doyin, Tai'nin and Fuyu.{{sfn|Twitchett|1998|p=222}}Mongol relations with the Ming dynasty consisted of sporadic bursts of conflict intermingled with periods of peaceful relations and border trade. The Oirat-backed Ãrüg Temür Khan (Gulichi) was defeated by Elbeg Khan's son Ãljei Temür Khan (Bunyashiri, r. 1408â1412), the protégé of Tamerlane (d. 1405), in 1403. Most of the Mongol noblemen under Arugtai chingsang sided with Ãljei Temur. The Yongle Emperor (r. 1402â1424) issued Ãljei Temür an ultimatum demanding his acceptance of tributary relations to the Ming dynasty. Ãljei Temur refused, resulting in the Ming dynasty conducting several campaigns against the Mongols. In 1409, a Ming army of 100,000 entered Mongolia but suffered a defeat against Ãljei Temur and Arugtai at the Battle of Kherlen. In the following year, the Yongle Emperor personally led an expedition into Mongolia and defeated the Mongols. After the death of Ãljei Temur, the Oirats under their leader Bahamu (Mahmud) (d. 1417) enthroned an Ariq Bökid Delbeg Khan in 1412. Originally the Ming had supported the Oirats in their power struggle with the eastern Mongols, but as the Oirats gained supremacy over them, the Ming withdrew their support. By 1422 Arugtai turned hostile again as the Ming did not grant him the trading privileges he wanted,BOOK, Rossabi, Morris, The Cambridge History of China, Volume 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1398â1644, Part 2, 1998, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 9780521243339, The Ming and Inner Asia, 230, and Yongle campaigned against him in 1422 and 1423. Bahamu's successor Toghan pushed Arugtai east of the Greater Khingan range in 1433. The Oirats killed him in the west of Baotou the next year. Arugtai's ally Adai Khan (r. 1425â1438) made a last stand in Ejene before he was murdered too.{{sfn|Adle|2003|p=210}}Toghan died in the very year of his victory over Adai. His son Esen Taishi (r. 1438â1454) brought the Oirats to the height of their power. Under his puppet khans, he drove back Moghulistan and crushed the Uriankhai Three Guards, Kara Del and the Jurchens. In 1449 he defeated a 500,000 strong Ming army and captured the Zhengtong Emperor in what came to be known as the Tumu Crisis.D. Morgan, The Mongols, p. 178 However, after this astounding victory, Esen failed to take the Ming capital of Beijing. In the following year a peace was concluded between the two sides and the captive emperor was allowed to return home. After executing the rebellious Tayisung Khan (r. 1433â1453) and his brother Agbarjin in 1453, Esen took the title of not just khan, but also Yuan Emperor.Ph. de Heer, The care-taker emperor, p. 99 This caused widespread dissent among the Genghisids, and in 1455, a series of revolts resulted in Esen's death. His death started the decline of the Oirats, who would not recover until their rise as the Dzungar Khanate in the 17th century.{{sfn|Adle|2003|p=211}}From Esen's death to 1481 different warlords of the Kharchin, the Belguteids and Ordos Mongols fought over succession and had their Genghisid khans enthroned. The Mongolian chroniclers call some of them the Uyghurs and they might have had some ties with the Hami oasis.C. P. Atwood. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 408 During his reign, Manduulun Khan (1475â1478) effectively won over most of the Mongol warlords before he died in 1478.Restoration (1479â1600)
Second reunification
{{Continental Asia in 1500 CE|right|The Northern Yuan and main polities in Asia {{c.|1500}}||Map_of_the_Northern_Yuan.png}}Manduulun's young khatun Mandukhai proclaimed a seven-year-old boy named Batumongke of Genghisid descent as khan. Mandukhai made persistent efforts to bring the various Mongol tribes under control. The new khan took the title Dayan meaning "the whole"BOOK, Ð, ÐавааÑÒ¯ÑÑн, ÐаÑÐ¼Ó©Ð½Ñ ÐаÑн Ñ Ð°Ð°Ð½, 2000, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, JOURNAL, å®é³å¾·åæ ¹, Buyandelger, 达延æ±çåå¹´ãå³ä½å¹´åæ¬åè辨, å èå¤å¤§å¦å¦æ¥, 2001, 33,weblink or âGreat Yuanâ (大å ; "Da Yuan").Memory of the Dai Yuan ulus (the Great Yuan dynasty) Mandukhai and Dayan Khan defeated the Oirats and the taishis who ruled the Yellow River Mongols. However, one of them killed Dayan Khan's son and revolted when Dayan Khan appointed his son, Ulusbold, as jinong (crown prince) over them. Dayan Khan finally defeated the southwestern Mongols in 1510 with the assistance of his allies, Unebolad wang and the Four Oirats.History of Ming Making another of his sons jinong, he abolished old-Yuan court titles of taishi, chingsang, pingchan and chiyuan.From 1495 onward, Dayan exerted pressure on the Ming dynasty, which closed border-trade and killed his envoys. Dayan invaded Ming territory and subjugated the Uriankhai Three Guards, who had previously submitted to the Ming. As a result, the Tümed Mongols ruled in the Ordos region and they gradually extended their domain into northeastern Qinghai.W. D. Shakabpa, Tibet: A Political History In 1517, Dayan even threatened Beijing itself. Mongol armies raided the Ming dynasty not only in the north but also in the hitherto quiet west. The Ming dynasty lost Kara Del as a protectorate to the Turpan Khanate at the same time. Dayan kept defeating the Ming in battle right up until his death in 1543.Gérard Chaliand. Nomadic empires: from Mongolia to the Danube, p.102 At the apogee of Dayan's reign, the Northern Yuan stretched from the Siberian tundra and Lake Baikal in the north, across the Gobi, to the edge of the Yellow River and south of it into the Ordos. The lands extended from the forests of Manchuria in the East past the Altai Mountains and out onto the steppes of Central Asia.Jack Weatherford. The Secret History of the Mongol QueensDayan Khan's reorganization of the Mongols into six Eastern Mongol tümens (literally "ten thousand") and four Oirats tümens had far-reaching effects on the development of Mongol society.- Left Wing:
- Khalkha tumen: Northern 7 otog: Jalaid, Besud, Eljigin, Gorlos, Khökhüid (Khukhuid), Khataghin, and later added Uriankhai. Southern 5 otog: Baarin, Jaruud, Bayagud, Ujeed (Uchirad) and Hongirad
- Chahar tumen: Abaga, Abaganar, Aokhan, Daurs, Durved, Hishigten, Muumyangan, Naiman, Onnigud, Huuchid, Sunud, Uzemchin, and UradBat-Ochir Bold-Mongolian nomadic society, p. 170
- Uriankhai tumen. This tumen was later dissolved.
- Right Wing:
- Four tümen Oirats:
Last reunification
(File:Tent of Altan kan and Sannangji.jpg|thumb|Tent of Altan kan and Sannangji.)File:Altan Khan.png|thumb|Realm of Altan KhanAltan Khan(File:ErdeneZuuKhiidTemple.jpg|thumb|Temple at Erdene Zuu monastery established by Abtai Khan in the Khalkha heartland in the 16th century.)After Dayan Khan's death, the Mongols began falling apart again under the two succeeding khans. By 1540 new regional circles of taijis and local tabunangs (imperial sons-in-law) of the taijis emerged in all the former Dayan Khan's domains. The khagan and the jinong had titular authority over the three right wing tumens. Darayisung Gödeng Khan (r. 1547â1557) had to grant titles of khans to his cousins Altan, ruling the Tumed, and Bayaskhul, ruling the Kharchin.{{sfn|Adle|2003|p=212}}Under Tümen Jasagtu Khan (r. 1558â92), the realm was unified again with the aid of Altan Khan, Abtai Sain Khan, and Khutughtai Sechen Khongtaiji of Ordos. Jasagtu defeated the Uriankhai and Daghur Mongols and subjugated the Jurchens to the east. Abtai and Sechen brought many of the Oirat tribes under their domination. Altan conquered large parts of Qinghai and left one of his sons in charge there. Jasagtu also tried to unify the Mongols under a new code of law, written in the old Mongol script derived from the Uyghur script.{{sfn|Adle|2003|p=213}} A series of smallpox epidemics and lack of trade forced the Mongols to repeatedly plunder the districts of China. In 1571 the Ming opened trade with the three Right Wing Tumens.Our great Qing: the Mongols, Buddhism and the state in late imperial China By Johan Elverskog, p. 68.By the end of the 16th century, the Uriankhai Three Guards had lost their existence as a distinct group. Their Fuyu was absorbed by the Khorchin after they had moved to the Nonni River. Two other, Doyin and Tai'nin, were absorbed by the Five Khalkhas.Willard J. Peterson, John King Fairbank, Denis C. Twitchett. The Cambridge history of China: The Ch'ing empire to 1800, Volume 9, p. 16.Conversion to Buddhism
Although Yuan emperors had previously adopted Buddhism, most Mongols ignored it and remained shamanist in their belief. From 1575, a large-scale conversion to Tibetan Buddhism in the Right Wing Tumens occurred. Jasagtu appointed a Tibetan Buddhist chaplain of the Karmapa order and agreed that Buddhism would henceforth become the state religion of Mongolia. In 1577, Altan and Sechen received the 3rd Dalai Lama, which started the conversion of Tumed and Ordos Mongols to Buddhism. Soon after the Oirats also adopted Buddhism. Numerous Tibetan lamas entered Mongolia to proselytize.{{sfn|Adle|2003|p=214}}Fall (1600â1635)
File:Tsogtiin tsagaan baishin.JPG|thumb|left|The White House of Tsogt TaijWhite House of Tsogt TaijBy the reign of Ligdan Khan (r. 1604â1634), the Eastern Mongol tumens had ceased to function as a unified entity. Ligdan only controlled the Chahar tumen and the Khalkha and Oirat Mongols no longer obeyed his authority. Ligdan built a new capital in Chahar land known as Chaghan Baishin (White House) and promoted the building of Buddhist monasteries, translation of Tibetan literature, and trade with the Ming dynasty.{{sfn|Adle|2003|p=215}}In 1616, the Jurchens rose to the forefront of East Asian powers under the reign of Nurhaci. Although sharing many similar characteristics with the Mongols, the Jurchens were not nomads, but tribal people who had adopted Chinese agricultural practices. Nurhaci had ambitions to conquer the Ming dynasty and sought allies in the Khorchin Mongols, subjects of Ligdan. The princes of Khorchin, Jarud, and southern Khalkha Mongols made a formal alliance with the Jurchens from 1612 to 1624.Evelyn S. Rawski. The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions, p. 493.File:Major Mongol and Jurchen rulers.png|thumb|Major Mongol and Jurchen rulers prior to the Jurchen unificationJurchen unificationFile:Chahar war.png|thumb|Chahar-Jurchen WarChahar-Jurchen WarIn response, Ligdan waged war on the Mongol allies of the Jurchens in 1625. The Jurchen-Mongol army defeated Ligdan and forced him back. In the following year, Uuba Noyan of the Khorchin had his younger brother marry one of Nurhaci's daughters, cementing the alliance. Many of the Jurchens married Mongols. Ligdan appointed his own officials over the tumens and formed an elite military band to coerce opposition. In 1628, Ligdan defeated the Khorchins and Jurchen auxiliary at Zhaocheng but fled a large Jurchen punitive expedition. Only Tsogt Taiji (1581â1637) supported the Great Khan whilst other nobles of Khalkha remained neutral and inactive. In 1632, Hong Taiji of the Jurchens and his Mongol allies defeated the Chahars and captured Ligdan's family. Ligdan lost any authority he had over the non-Chahar tumens. Ligdan died on his way to Qinghai to punish the Gelug order in 1634. His son, Ejei Khan, surrendered to the Qing dynasty and was said to give the Imperial Seal of the Mongols to Qing emperor Hong Taiji the next year (February 1635), ending the Kublaid descent ruled Northern Yuan.Ann Heirman, Stephan Peter Bumbacher. The spread of Buddhism, p. 395.After Ligdan Khan's death in 1634, the Mongols formed four Khanates, from west to east:- The Altan Khan of Khalkhas in the far west, founded by Sholoi Ubashi, great-grandson of Geresandza.
- The Dzasagtu Khans, a khanate founded by Laikhor-khan, a cousin of the Altan Khan.
- The Tushetu Khans at Ulaanbaatar founded by Abatai, another grandson. This was the senior branch.
- The Sechen Khans at the eastern end of modern Mongolia, were founded by Sholoi, a great-grandson.
Aftermath
{{See also|DzungarâQing War}}Outer Mongolia
(File:Mongolia in 1636.svg|thumb|300px|The various regimes on the Mongolian Plateau after the proclamation of Qing dynasty)In 1636, all of Inner Mongolia had already been conquered by the Manchus, and the successors of the Mongol Empire were also under Manchu authority.{{Citation |last=Cosmo |first=Nicola Di |title=The Extension of Châ²ing rule over Mongolia, Sinkiang, and Tibet, 1636â1800 |date=2016 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-china/extension-of-ching-rule-over-mongolia-sinkiang-and-tibet-16361800/8F892F84FFAD37DBC43A49A62B3AF438 |work=The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800 |volume=9 |pages=111â145 |editor-last=Peterson |editor-first=Willard J. |access-date=2023-06-13 |series=The Cambridge History of China |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-24335-3}} The son of Ligdan Khan, Ejei, died under mysterious circumstances. His rank was given to his brother Abunai, who refused to attend court with the Manchus. Abunai's rank was then passed on to his son, Burni, who rebelled against the Manchus in 1675, but the uprising was defeated and Burni died in battle.{{sfn|Adle|2003|p=216}}BOOK, Narangoa Li, Robert Cribb, Historical Atlas of Northeast Asia, 1590â2010: Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Siberia,weblink 13 May 2014, Columbia University Press, 978-0-231-53716-2, 51, The Qing emperors then placed the Chahar Mongols under their direct rule.In Outer Mongolia the Khalkhas still against Manchu rule, Tüsheet Khan Gombodorj retained his independence and suzerainty over the Sechen and Jasagtu khans. However another independent entity known as Altan Khan of the Khalkha emerged in Jasagtu territory. With the loss of Inner Mongolia and the Imperial Mongol Seal, the Mongols had to search for a new source of authority. As a result, in 1639, Gombodorj's son became the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, the spiritual head of the Gelug Buddhists in Mongolia. Gombodorj did his best to maintain peaceful relations with the rising Manchus by sending tribute. He also stopped providing horses to the Ming dynasty. Diplomacy failed after the Manchus defeated the Ming in 1644 and seized Beijing. In 1646, a Mongol noyan rebelled against the Qing but was crushed under overwhelming odds. In 1647, Gombodorj met the Qing in battle with 50,000 cavalry and neither side were able to obtain a decisive victory. Although both sides suffered heavy losses, the Mongol army constituted a larger part of their overall forces than the Qing, signalling that the Mongols no longer had the numbers to directly confront the Qing in battle.{{sfn|Adle|2003|p=218}}In the mid-17th century, Gombodorj died and was succeeded by his young and inexperienced son Chikhundorj. In 1655, the Qing began interfering in Tusheet affairs by appointing their own lamas in Tusheet territory. Thus Outer Mongolia also gradually fell under Qing control.{{sfn|Adle|2003|p=219}}Dzungar Khanate
File:Qing Dzungar wars.jpg|thumb|DzungarâQing WarsDzungarâQing WarsMeanwhile, to the west, about 1600â1620 the Oirats united under Kharkhul. In 1635, the Oirats under Kharkhul's son Erdeni Batur formed the Dzungar Khanate. This unification was partly driven by their wars with the Altan Khans.{{sfn|Adle|2003|p=218}} When the Jasagtu Khan Shira lost part of his subjects to the Tüsheet Khan Chikhundorj, Galdan Boshugtu Khan of the Dzungars moved his orda near the Altai Mountains to prepare an attack. Chikhundorj attacked the right wing of the Khalkhas and killed Shira in 1687. In 1688, Galdan dispatched troops under his younger brother Dorji-jav against Chikhundorj but they were eventually defeated and Dorji-jav was killed in battle. Chikhundorj then murdered Degdeehei Mergen Ahai of the Jasagtu Khan who was on the way to Galdan. To avenge the death of his brother, Galdan established friendly relations with the Russians who were already at war with Chikhundorj over territories near Lake Baikal. Armed with Russian firearms, Galdan led 30,000 Dzungar troops into Outer Mongolia in 1688 and defeated Chikhundorj in three days. The Siberian Cossacks, meanwhile, attacked and defeated a Khalkha army of 10,000 near Lake Baikal. After two bloody battles with the Dzungars near Erdene Zuu Monastery and Tomor, Chikhundorji and his brother Jebtsundamba Khutuktu Zanabazar fled across the Gobi Desert to the Qing dynasty and submitted to the Kangxi Emperor.{{sfn|Adle|2003|p=148}}By 1690, Galdan had control of Outer Mongolia as far as the edge of Manchuria, before turning his attention east towards Beijing. This expansion of the Dzungar state was viewed with worry by the Qing, which led the Kangxi Emperor (Enh-Amgalan khaan-in Mongolian) to block Galdan. Late in the summer of 1690, Galdan crossed the Kherlen River with a force of 20,000 and engaged a Qing army at Battle of Ulan Butung 350 kilometers north of Beijing near the western headwaters of the Liao River. Galdan was forced to retreat and escaped total destruction because the Qing army did not have the supplies or ability to pursue him. In 1696, the Kangxi Emperor led 100,000 troops into Mongolia. Galdan fled from the Kherlen only to be caught by another Qing army attacking from the west. He was defeated in the ensuing Battle of Jao Modo near the upper Tuul River. Galdan's wife, Anu, was killed and the Qing army captured 20,000 cattle and 40,000 sheep. Galdan fled with a small handful of followers. In 1697 he died in the Altai Mountains near Khovd on 4 April. Back in Dzungaria, his nephew Tsewang Rabtan, who had revolted in 1689, was already in control as of 1691.{{sfn|Adle|2003|p=148}} Outer Mongolia was thus incorporated into the Qing Empire, and the Khalkha leaders returned to Outer Mongolia as Qing vassals. A Qing garrison was installed at Ulaanbaatar. The Qing forces occupied Hami but did not advance into Dzungaria. The Dzungars later expanded into Tibet and Kazakhstan, but they too were conquered by the Qing dynasty in 1755, and all resistance was crushed by 1758.{{sfn|Adle|2003|p=220}}See also
Notes
{{NoteFoot}}References
Citations
{{Reflist}}Sources
- {{citation |last = Adle |first = Chahryar |year = 2003 |title = History of Civilizations of Central Asia |volume = 5 }}
- {{citation |last = Twitchett |first = Denis C. |title-link = |title = The Cambridge History of China |volume = 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589â906 |year=1979 |publisher = Cambridge University Press }}
- {{citation |last = Twitchett |first = Denis |title = The Cambridge History of China |volume = 6: Alien Regime and Border States, 907â1368 |chapter = The Liao |pages = 43â153 |year = 1994 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |location = Cambridge, England |isbn = 0521243319 }}
- {{citation |last = Twitchett |first = Denis |title = The Cambridge History of China |volume = 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368â1644, Part I |year = 1998 |publisher= Cambridge University Press }}
- {{citation |last = Twitchett |first=Denis |title = The Cambridge History of China |volume = 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1368â1644, Part 2 |year = 1998b |publisher = Cambridge University Press }}
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