GetWiki

{{Short description|DNA testing to infer relationships}}{{genetic genealogy}}Genetic genealogy is the use of genealogical DNA tests, i.e., DNA profiling and DNA testing, in combination with traditional genealogical methods, to infer genetic relationships between individuals. This application of genetics came to be used by family historians in the 21st century, as DNA tests became affordable. The tests have been promoted by amateur groups, such as surname study groups or regional genealogical groups, as well as research projects such as the Genographic Project.{{As of|2019|post=,}} about 30 million people had been tested. As the field developed, the aims of practitioners broadened, with many seeking knowledge of their ancestry beyond the recent centuries, for which traditional pedigrees can be constructed.{{toc limit}}

History

File:George Darwin sepia tone.jpg|thumb|150px|George Darwin, the first person to estimate the frequency of first-cousin marriagefirst-cousin marriageThe investigation of surnames in genetics can be said to go back to George Darwin, a son of Charles Darwin and Charles' first cousin Emma Darwin. In 1875, George Darwin used surnames to estimate the frequency of first-cousin marriages and calculated the expected incidence of marriage between people of the same surname (isonymy). He arrived at a figure of 1.5% for cousin-marriage in the population of London, higher (3%-3.5%) among the upper classes and lower (2.25%) among the general rural population.

Surname studies

A famous study in 1998 examined the lineage of descendants of Thomas Jefferson's paternal line and male lineage descendants of the freed slave Sally Hemings.Bryan Sykes, a molecular biologist at Oxford University, tested the new methodology in general surname research.WEB,weblink Farewell to Oxford Ancestors, Kennett, Debbie, 2018-03-14, Cruwys news, 2018-05-21, His study of the Sykes surname, published in 2000, obtained results by looking at four STR markers on the male chromosome. It pointed the way to genetics becoming a valuable assistant in the service of genealogy and history.

Direct-to-consumer DNA testing

In 2000, Family Tree DNA was the first company to provide direct-to-consumer genetic testing for genealogy research. It initially offered eleven-marker Y-chromosome STR tests and HVR1 mitochondrial DNA tests but not multi-generational genealogy tests. In 2001, GeneTree was acquired by Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation (SMGF), which provided free Y-chromosome and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) tests. GeneTree later returned to genetic testing in conjunction with its Sorenson parent company until it was acquired by Ancestry.com in 2012.In 2007, 23andMe was the first company to offer saliva-based direct-to-consumer testing,NEWS, Hamilton, Anita,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20081102044918weblink">weblink dead, November 2, 2008, Best Inventions of 2008, Time (magazine), Time, October 29, 2008, April 5, 2012, and the first to use autosomal DNA for ancestry testing.WEB,weblink About Us, 23andMe, 2017-11-22, 2018-02-14,weblink dead, BOOK,weblink Autosomal DNA testing comparison chart, International Society of Genetic Genealogy Wiki, Janzen, Tim, etal, Family Tree DNA Learning Center, Gene by Gene, An autosome is one of the 22 chromosomes other than the X or Y chromosomes. They are transmitted from all ancestors in recent generations and so can be used to match with other testers who may be related. Companies were later also able to use this data to estimate how much of each ethnicity a customer has. FamilyTreeDNA entered this market in 2010, followed by AncestryDNA in 2012, and the number of tests grew rapidly. By 2018 autosomal testing had become the predominant type of test, and for many companies the only test they offered.WEB,weblink The Top 5 Autosomal DNA Tests of 2018, Southard, Diahan, 2018-04-25, Family Tree, en-US, 2019-01-18, MyHeritage launched its testing service in 2016, allowing users to use cheek swabs to collect samples,NEWS, Lardinois, Frederic, MyHeritage launches DNA testing service to help you uncover your family's history,weblink 13 December 2016, TechCrunch, 7 November 2016, and introduced new analysis tools in 2019: autoclusters (grouping matches visually into clusters)WEB,weblink Introducing AutoClusters for DNA Matches, 2019-02-28, MyHeritage Blog, and family tree theories (suggesting conceivable relations between DNA matches by combining several MyHeritage trees and the Geni global family tree).WEB,weblink MyHeritage's "Theory of Family Relativity": An Exciting New Tool!, 2019-03-15, DanaLeeds.com, en-US, Living DNA, founded in 2015, uses SNP chips to provide reports on autosomal ancestry, Y, and mtDNA ancestry.WEB,weblink Living DNA review, 21 June 2019, WEB,weblink Is this the most detailed at-home DNA testing kit yet?, CNN, 22 April 2019, By 2019, the combined total of customers at the four largest companies was 26 million.WEB,weblink Continued Commitment to Customer Privacy and Control, Ancestry Blog, November 2, 2017, November 22, 2017, January 26, 2021,weblink dead, By August 2019, it was reported that about 30 million people had had their DNA tested for genealogical purposes.WEB,weblink Consumer DNA testing has hit a lull — here's how it could capture the next wave of users, Farr, Christina, 2019-08-25, CNBC, en, 2019-12-01, WEB,weblink More than 26 million people have taken an at-home ancestry test, Regalado, Antonio, 2019-02-11, MIT Technology Review, en, 2019-04-16, GEDmatch said in 2018 that about half of their one million profiles were American.NEWS,weblink To Solve Cold Cases, All It Takes Is Crime Scene DNA, a Genealogy Site and High-speed Internet, Michaeli, Yarden, 2018-11-16, Haaretz, 2018-11-21, en, Due to the limited geographical distribution of DNA tests, there is inherent racism in the databases and results. The CEO of 23andME, Anne Wojcicki, said in 2020 that her company is "part of the problem."WEB, 2020-06-10, Geneticists weigh in on how 23andMe can tackle racial inequity in the field,weblink 2020-12-17, Stat (website), STAT, en-US, Experts in genetics and health inequities believe the inherent racism of these DNA analyses can be addressed by building diverse ethnocultural teams and encouraging Black, Indigenous and People of Color to get their DNA tested.

Genetic genealogy revolution

The publication of The Seven Daughters of Eve by Sykes in 2001, which described the seven major haplogroups of European ancestors, helped push personal ancestry testing through DNA tests into wide public notice. With the growing availability and affordability of genealogical DNA testing, genetic genealogy as a field grew rapidly. By 2003, the field of DNA testing of surnames was declared officially to have "arrived" in an article by Jobling and Tyler-Smith in Nature Reviews Genetics. The number of firms offering tests, and the number of consumers ordering them, rose dramatically. In 2018, a paper in Science Magazine estimated that a DNA genealogy search on anybody of European descent would result in a third cousin or closer match 60% of the time.JOURNAL, Erlich, Yaniv, Shor, Tal, Pe'er, Itsik, Carmi, Shai, 2018-11-09, Identity inference of genomic data using long-range familial searches, Science, en, 362, 6415, 690–694, 10.1126/science.aau4832, 0036-8075, 30309907, 7549546, 2018Sci...362..690E, free,

Genographic Project

{{Update|section|date=September 2013}}The original Genographic Project was a five-year research study launched in 2005 by the National Geographic Society and IBM, in partnership with the University of Arizona and Family Tree DNA. Its goals were primarily anthropological. The project announced that by April 2010 it had sold more than 350,000 of its public participation testing kits, which test the general public for either twelve STR markers on the Y chromosome or mutations on the HVR1 region of the mtDNA.The phase of the project in 2016 was Geno 2.0 Next Generation.WEB, About the Genographic Project - National Geographic,weblinkweblink dead, January 22, 2013, Genographic Project, As of 2018, almost one-million participants in over 140 countries had joined the project.WEB, National Geographic Geno DNA Ancestry Kit {{!, Human Migration, Population Genetics |url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221212658weblink |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 21, 2012 |website=Genographic Project}}

Typical customers and interest groups

{{More citations needed section|date=July 2013}}Genetic genealogy has enabled groups of people to trace their ancestry even though they are not able to use conventional genealogical techniques. This may be because they do not know one or both of their birth parents or because conventional genealogical records have been lost, destroyed or never existed. These groups include adoptees, foundlings, Holocaust survivors, GI babies, child migrants, descendants of children from orphan trains and people with slave ancestry.How African Americans Use DNA Testing to Connect With Their PastUtilizing DNA testing to break through adoption roadblocksThe earliest test takers were customers most often those who started with a Y-chromosome test to determine their father's paternal ancestry. These men often took part in surname projects. The first phase of the Genographic Project brought new participants into genetic genealogy. Those who tested were as likely to be interested in direct maternal heritage as their paternal. The number of those taking mtDNA tests increased. The introduction of autosomal SNP tests based on microarray chip technology changed the demographics. Women were as likely as men to test themselves.

Citizen science and ISOGG

{{further|Conversion table for Y chromosome haplogroups{{!}}Y-chromosome haplogroup trees}}Members of the genetic genealogy community have been credited with making useful contributions to knowledge in the field, an example of citizen science.BOOK, Redmonds, George, Surnames, DNA, and Family History, 2011, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 9780199582648, 196,weblink King, Turi, Hey, David, The growth of interest in genetic genealogy has inspired a group of individuals outside the academic area who are passionate about the subject and who have an impressive grasp of the research issues. Two focal points for this group are the International Society of Genetic Genealogy and the Journal of Genetic Genealogy. The ISOGG is a non-profit, non-commercial organization that provides resources and maintains one of the most up-to-date, if not completely academically verified, phylogenetic trees of Y chromosome haplogroups., One of the earliest interest groups to emerge was the International Society of Genetic Genealogy (ISOGG). Their stated goal is to promote DNA testing for genealogy. Members advocate the use of genetics in genealogical research and the group facilitates networking among genetic genealogists. Since 2006 ISOGG has maintained the regularly updated ISOGG Y-chromosome phylogenetic tree. ISOGG aims to keep the tree as up-to-date as possible, incorporating new SNPs. However, the tree has been described by academics as not completely academically verified, phylogenetic trees of Y chromosome haplogroups.

Uses

Direct maternal lineages

{{details|Genealogical_DNA_test#Mitochondrial_DNA_.28mtDNA.29_testing{{!}}Genealogical DNA Test - Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) testing}}mtDNA testing involves sequencing at least part of the mitochondria. The mitochondria is transmitted from mother to child, and so can reveal information about the direct maternal line. When two individuals have matching or near mitochondria, it can be inferred that they share a common maternal-line ancestor at some point in the recent past.WEB,weblink mtDNA Testing, Family Tree DNA, 27 September 2022,

Direct paternal lineages

{{details|Genealogical_DNA_test#Y_chromosome_.28Y-DNA.29_testing{{!}}Genealogical DNA Test - Y-Chromosome DNA (Y-DNA) testing}}Y-Chromosome DNA (Y-DNA) testing involves short tandem repeat (STR) and, sometimes, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) testing of the Y-Chromosome, which is present only in males and only reveals information on the strict-paternal line. As with the mitochondria, close matches with individuals indicate a recent common ancestor. Because surnames in many cultures are transmitted down the paternal line, this testing is often used by surname DNA projects.WEB,weblink Y-DNA STR Testing, Family Tree DNA, 27 September 2022, While early studies using STRs made bold claims that large numbers of men descend from prominent historical individuals (e.g. Niall of the Nine Hostages and Genghis Khan), more recent SNP studies have shown many of these to be invalid. In particular, STR mutations are now known to be largely unreliable in proving kinship, as these mutations can appear in multiple unrelated lineages by chance. SNP testing is necessary to prove a true relationship, as these mutations are considered so rare that they could only have arisen in one individual in history. In the few cases where the same SNP mutation occurs in different lineages, the accompanying SNPs ensure its recognition as a de novo mutation.

Pedigree family trees

Pedigree family trees have traditionally been prepared from recollections of individuals about their parents and grandparents. These family trees may be extended if recollections of earlier generations were preserved through oral tradition or written documents. Some genealogists regard oral tradition as myths unless confirmedWEB,weblink Genealogy or Family History? What's the Difference?, Society of Genealogists, 10 Aug 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20130705073704weblink">weblink 5 July 2013, live, with written documentation like birth certificates, marriage certificates, census reports, headstones, or notes in family bibles.WEB,weblink What Are Primary & Secondary Sources?, The Genealogy Assistant, 26 September 2022, Few written records are kept by illiterate populations, and many documents have been destroyed by warfare or natural disasters. DNA comparison may offer an alternative means of confirming family relationships of biological parents, but may be confused by adoption or when a mother conceals the identity of the father of her child.WEB,weblink Ancestors: What Constitutes Proof?, 11 July 2018, DNAeXplained – Genetic Genealogy, 26 September 2022, While mitochondrial and Y-chromosome DNA matching offer the most definitive confirmation of ancestral relationships, the information from a tested individual is relevant to a decreasing fraction of their ancestors from earlier generations. Potential ambiguity must be considered when seeking confirmation from comparison of autosomal DNA. The first source of ambiguity arises from the underlying similarity of every individual's DNA sequence. Many short gene segments will be identical by coincidental recombination (Identical by State: IBS) rather than inheritance from a single ancestor (Identical by Descent: IBD). Segments of greater length offer increased confidence of a shared ancestor. A second source of ambiguity results from the random distribution of genes to each child of a parent. Only identical twins inherit exactly the same gene segments. Although a child inherits exactly half of their DNA from each parent, the percentage inherited from any given ancestor in an earlier generation (with the exception of X chromosome DNA) varies within a normal distribution around a median value of 100% divided by the number of ancestors in that generation. An individual comparing autosomal DNA with ancestors of successively earlier generations will encounter an increasing number of ancestors from whom they inherited no DNA segments of significant length. Since individuals inherit only a small portion of their DNA from each of their great-grandparents, cousins descended from the same ancestor may not inherit the same DNA segments from that ancestor. All descendants of the same parent or grandparent, and nearly all descendants of the same great-grandparent, will share gene segments of significant length; but approximately 10% of 3rd cousins, 55% of 4th cousins, 85% of 5th cousins, and more than 95% of more distant cousins will share no gene segments of significant length. Failure to share a gene segment of significant length does not disprove the shared ancestry of a distant cousin.WEB,weblink DNA Relatives: Detecting Relatives and Predicting Relationships, 23andMe, 26 September 2022, The best autosomal DNA method for confirming ancestry is to compare DNA with known relatives. A more complicated task is using a DNA database to identify previously unknown individuals who share DNA with the individual of interest; and then attempting to find shared ancestors with those individuals.WEB,weblink Help:DNA Ancestor Confirmation Aid, Janzen, Tim, WikiTree, 26 September 2022, The first problem with the latter procedure involves the relatively poor family history knowledge of most database populations. A significant percentage of individuals in many DNA databases have done DNA testing because they are uncertain of their parentage, and many who confidently identify their parents are unable or unwilling to share information about earlier generations. It may be easier to identify a shared ancestor in the fortunate situation of shared DNA between two individuals with comprehensive family trees, but finding multiple shared ancestors raises the question of from which of those ancestors was the shared segment inherited. Resolving that ambiguity typically requires finding a third individual sharing both the ancestor and the gene segment of interest.WEB,weblink Help:Triangulation, WikiTree, 26 September 2022,

Ancestral origins

{{Further|Biogeographic ancestry|Population genetics}}A common component of many autosomal tests is a prediction of biogeographical origin, often called ethnicity. A company offering the test uses computer algorithms and calculations to make a prediction of what percentage of an individual's DNA comes from particular ancestral groups. A typical number of populations is at least 20. Despite this aspect of the tests being heavily promoted and advertised, many genetic genealogists have warned consumers that the results may be inaccurate, and at best are only approximate.WEB,weblink Ethnicity Testing — A Conundrum, DNAeXplained – Genetic Genealogy, Estes, Roberta, February 10, 2016, Modern DNA sequencing has identified various ancestral components in contemporary populations. A number of these genetic elements have West Eurasian origins. They include the following ancestral components, with their geographical hubs and main associated populations:{| class="wikitable sortable" align=center! # !! West Eurasian component !! Geographical hub !! Peak population !! Notes

1

align=center

Ancestral North Indian >

Bangladesh, North India, Pakistan

align=center

Bangladeshis, North Indians, Pakistani people>Pakistanis

Main West Eurasian component in the Indian subcontinent. Peaks among Indo-European languages

-speaking caste populations in the northern areas, but also found at significant frequencies among some Dravidian languages>Dravidian-speaking caste groups. Associated with either the arrival of Indo-European speakers from West Asia or Central Asia between 3,000 and 4,000 years before present, or with the spread of agriculture and West Asian crops beginning around 8,000-9,000 ybp, or with migrations from West Asia in the pre-agricultural period. Contrasted with the indigenous Ancestral South Indian component, which peaks among the Onge people

Andamanese people>Andamanese inhabiting the Andaman Islands.PRIYA MOORJANI >AUTHOR2=KUMARASAMY THANGARAJ

AUTHOR4=MARK LIPSON

AUTHOR6=PERIYASAMY GOVINDARAJ

AUTHOR8=DAVID REICH

TITLE=GENETIC EVIDENCE FOR RECENT POPULATION MIXTURE IN INDIA

DATE=5 SEPTEMBER 2013

ISSUE=3

DOI=10.1016/J.AJHG.2013.07.006

PMC=3769933, RAKESH TAMANG >AUTHOR2=LALJI SINGH

TITLE=COMPLEX GENETIC ORIGIN OF INDIAN POPULATIONS AND ITS IMPLICATIONS

DATE=NOVEMBER 2012

ISSUE=5

URL=HTTP://NS1.IAS.AC.IN/JBIOSCI/NOV2012/911.PDF

DOI=10.1007/S12038-012-9256-9

S2CID=17553952,

2

align=center

Genetic studies on Arabs>Arabian

align=center

Arabian peninsula >

Yemenis, Saudi Arabia

, Qataris, Bedouins >

Persian Gulf region. Most closely associated with local Arabic languages>Arabic, Semitic languages

-speaking populations.MARC HABER

AUTHOR3=SONIA YOUHANNA

AUTHOR5=PRIYA MOORJANI

AUTHOR7=DANIEL E. PLATT

AUTHOR9=DAVID F. SORIA-HERNANZ

AUTHOR11=JAUME BERTRANPETIT

AUTHOR13=DAVID COMAS

TITLE=GENOME-WIDE DIVERSITY IN THE LEVANT REVEALS RECENT STRUCTURING BY CULTURE

DATE=FEBRUARY 28, 2013

ISSUE=2

PAGES=E1003316

PMC=3585000

Levant, Egypt and Libya.BRENNA M. HENN

AUTHOR3=SIMON GRAVEL

AUTHOR5=ABRA BRISBIN

AUTHOR7=KARIMA FADHLAOUI-ZID

AUTHOR9=ANDRES MORENO-ESTRADA

AUTHOR11=CARLOS D. BUSTAMANTE

TITLE=GENOMIC ANCESTRY OF NORTH AFRICANS SUPPORTS BACK-TO-AFRICA MIGRATIONS

DATE=JANUARY 12, 2012

ISSUE=1

PAGES=E1002397

PMC=3257290, free,

3

align=center

DNA history of Egypt>Coptic

align=center

Nile Valley >

Copts, Beja people

, Afroasiatic languages>Afro-Asiatic Ethiopians, Sudanese Arabs, Nubian people

>

Northeast Africa.BEGOñA DOBON

AUTHOR3=HAFID LAAYOUNI

AUTHOR5=ISIS RICAñO-PONCE

AUTHOR7=CISCA WIJMENGA

AUTHOR9=DAVID COMAS

AUTHOR11=JAUME BERTRANPETIT

JOURNAL=SCIENTIFIC REPORTS

VOLUME=5

URL=HTTP://EUROPEPMC.ORG/BACKEND/PTPMCRENDER.FCGI?ACCID=PMC4446898&BLOBTYPE=PDF

PAGES=9996

PMID=26017457

AUTHOR3=ALI AL-MEERI

TITLE=EARLY BACK-TO-AFRICA MIGRATION INTO THE HORN OF AFRICA

DATE=JUNE 12, 2014

ISSUE=6

PAGES=E1004393

PMC=4055572

title=Supplementary Text S1: Affinities of the Ethio-Somali ancestry component

doi-access=free}} Peaks among Egyptian Copts in Sudan. Also found at high frequencies among other Afroasiatic languages

(Hamito-Semitic) speakers in Ethiopia and Sudan, as well as among many Nubian people>Nubians. Associated with Ancient Egyptian ancestry, without the later Arabian influence present among modern Egyptians. Contrasted with the indigenous Nilo-Saharan component, which peaks among Nilo-Saharan languages

- and Kordofanian languages>Kordofanian-speaking populations inhabiting the southern part of the Nile Valley.

4	align=center	Afroasiatic Urheimat#Evidence from population genetics>Ethio-Somali	align=center	Horn of Africa >	Somali people	, Afar people>Afars, Amhara people	, Oromo people>Oromos, Tigrinya people	>	Cushitic languages>Cushitic- and Ethiopian Semitic languages	-speaking populations in the northern areas. Diverged from the Maghrebi component around 23,000 ybp, and from the Arabian component about 25,000 ybp. Contrasted with the indigenous Omotic component, which peaks among the Omotic languages>Omotic-speaking Ari ironworkers inhabiting southern Ethiopia.

5	align=center	Genetic history of Europe>European	align=center	Europe >	Europeans	Main West Eurasian component in Europe. Also found at significant frequencies in adjacent geographical areas outside of the continent, in Anatolia, the Caucasus, the Iranian plateau, and parts of the Levant.

6	align=center	Genetic history of the Middle East>Levantine	align=center	Near East, Caucasus >	Druze people	, Lebanese people>Lebanese, Cyprus	, Syrians, Jordanians, Palestinians, Armenian people>Armenians, Georgian people	, Sephardic Jews, Ashkenazi Jews, Iranian peoples>Iranians, Turkish people	, Sardinians, Adyghe people>Adygei	Main West Eurasian component in the Near East and Caucasus. Peaks among Druze people	populations in the Levant. Found amongst local Afro-Asiatic, Indo-European, Caucasian languages>Caucasus and Turkish speakers alike. Diverged from the European component around 9,100-15,900 ybp, and from the Arabian component about 15,500-23,700 ypb. Also found at significant frequencies in Southern Europe as well as parts of the Arabian peninsula.

7	align=center	Genetic history of North Africa>Maghrebi	align=center	Northwest Africa >	Berber people	, Maghrebi people>Maghrebis, Sahrawi people	, Tuareg people>Tuareg	Main West Eurasian component in the Maghreb. Peaks among the Berbers	(non-Arabized Berber>Arabized) populations in the region. Diverged from the Ethio-Somali/Coptic, Arabian, Levantine and European components prior to the Holocene.

Human migration

Genealogical DNA testing methods have been used on a longer time scale to trace human migratory patterns. For example, they determined when the first humans came to North America and what path they followed.For several years, researchers and laboratories from around the world sampled indigenous populations from around the globe in an effort to map historical human migration patterns. The National Geographic Society's Genographic Project aims to map historical human migration patterns by collecting and analyzing DNA samples from over 100,000 people across five continents. The DNA Clans Genetic Ancestry Analysis measures a person's precise genetic connections to indigenous ethnic groups from around the world.

Law enforcement

{{Further|Investigative genetic genealogy}}Law enforcement may use genetic genealogy to track down perpetrators of violent crimes such as murder or sexual assault and they may also use it to identify deceased individuals. Initially genetic genealogy sites GEDmatch and Family Tree DNA allowed their databases to be used by law enforcement and DNA technology companies WEB,weblink The brave new world of genetic genealogy, WEB,weblink Body found in 1995 tentatively identified, to do DNA testing for violent criminal cases and genetic genealogy research at the request of law enforcement. This investigative, or forensic, genetic genealogy technique became popular after the arrest of the alleged Golden State Killer in 2018,NEWS, Molteni, Megan, What the Golden State Killer tells us about Forensic Genetics,weblink 25 April 2019, Wired, 24 April 2019,weblink 25 April 2019, live, but has received significant backlash from privacy experts.JOURNAL, Zabel, Joseph, The Killer Inside Us: Law, Ethics, and the Forensic Use of Family Genetics, Berkeley Journal of Criminal Law, 2019-05-22, 3368705, JOURNAL, Curtis, Caitlin, Hereward, James, Mangelsdorf, Marie, Hussey, Karen, Devereux, John, December 2018, Protecting trust in medical genetics in the new era of forensics, Genetics in Medicine, 21, 7, 1483–1485, 10.1038/s41436-018-0396-7, 30559376, 6752261, However, in May 2019 GEDmatch made their privacy rules more restrictive, thereby reducing the incentive for law enforcement agencies to use their site.WEB,weblink GEDmatch Changes Are 'Blow' to Law Enforcement – and Forensic Genealogy, Augenstein, Seth, 2019-05-20, Forensic Magazine, en, 2019-05-24, WEB,weblink Forensic Genealogy: Where Does Cold-Case Breakthrough Technique Go After GEDmatch Announcement?, Augenstein, Seth, 2019-05-23, Forensic Magazine, en, 2019-05-24, Other sites such as Ancestry.com, 23andMe and MyHeritage have data policies that say that they would not allow their customer data to be used for crime solving without a warrant from law enforcement as they believed it violated users' privacy.NEWS, Pauly, Madison, 12 March 2019, Police Are Increasingly Taking Advantage of Home DNA Tests. There Aren't Any Regulations to Stop It.,weblink Mother Jones, 26 April 2019,weblink 31 March 2019, live, JOURNAL, Lund, Solana, 2020-05-15, Ethical Implications of Forensic Genealogy in Criminal Cases,weblink The Journal of Business, Entrepreneurship and Law, Pepperdine University School of Law, California, USA, 13, 2, 189–192,

See also

{{div col|colwidth=18em}}

• Allele
• Allele frequency
• Electropherogram
• Genetic recombination
• Haplotype
• Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup
• Human mitochondrial genetics
• Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup
• Most recent common ancestor
• Non-paternity event
• List of Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world
• Y-STR (Y-chromosome short tandem repeat)

{{div col end}}

References

Further reading

Books

• BOOK, 978-0-9664027-1-1, How to DNA Test Our Family Relationships, Carmichael, Terrence, Alexander Ivanof Kuklin; Ed Grotjan, 2000, AceN Press, Mountain View, CA,weblink Early book on adoptions, paternity and other relationship testing. Carmichael is a founder of GeneTree.
• BOOK, 978-0-691-08750-4, The History and Geography of Human Genes,weblink registration, Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca, Paolo Menozzi; Alberto Piazza, 1994, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.,
• BOOK, 978-0-201-44231-1, The Great Human Diasporas : The History of Diversity and Evolution, Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi L., Francesco, Cavalli-Sforza, Heather, Mimnaugh, Lynn, Parker, 1996, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, registration,weblink
• BOOK, 978-0-9767160-1-3, DNA and Genealogy, Fitzpatrick, Colleen, Andrew Yeiser, 2005, Rice Book Press, Fountain Valley, CA,weblink
• BOOK, 978-0-674-89203-3, Timewalkers : The Prehistory of Global Colonization, Gamble, Clive, 1996, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, registration,weblink
• BOOK, 978-0-8153-4185-7, Human Evolutionary Genetics : Origins, Peoples and Disease, Jobling, Mark, Hurles, Matthew, Tyler-Smith, Chris, 2003, Garland Science, New York, NY,
• BOOK, 978-0-618-35210-4, Mapping Human History : Genes, Race, and Our Common Origins, Olson, Steve, 2003, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA,weblink Survey of major populations.
• BOOK, 978-0-7867-1192-5, The Real Eve : Modern Man's Journey Out of Africa, Oppenheimer, Stephen, 2003, Carroll & Graf, New York, NY,
• BOOK, 978-1-59486-006-5, Trace Your Roots with DNA : Using Genetic Tests to Explore Your Family Tree, Smolenyak, Megan, Ann Turner, 2004, Distributed to the trade by Holtzbrinck Publishers, Emmaus, PA; Rodale, NY,weblink Out of date but still worth reading.
• BOOK, 978-1-5500-2536-1, DNA and Family History : How Genetic Testing Can Advance Your Genealogical Research, Pomery, Chris, Steve Jones, 2004, Dundurn Group, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, registration,weblink Early guide for do-it-yourself genealogists.
• BOOK, 978-1-905615-12-4, Family History in the Genes : Trace Your DNA and Grow Your Family Tree, Pomery, Chris, 2007, National Archives, Kew, UK,
• BOOK, 978-1-4016-0144-7, Unlocking Your Genetic History : A Step-by-Step Guide to Discovering Your Family's Medical and Genetic Heritage, Shawker, Thomas H., 2004, Rutledge Hill Press, Nashville, TN, Guide to the subject of family medical history and genetic diseases.
• BOOK, 978-0-393-32314-6, The Seven Daughters of Eve : The Science That Reveals Our Genetic Ancestry, Sykes, Bryan, 2002, Norton, New York, NY, registration,weblink Names the founders of Europe's major female haplogroups Helena, Jasmine, Katrine, Tara, Velda, Xenia, and Ursula.
• BOOK, 978-0-393-05896-3, Adam's Curse : A Future Without Men, Sykes, Bryan, 2004, W.W. Norton, New York, NY, registration,weblink
• BOOK, 978-0-02-863586-6, Complete Idiot's Guide to Decoding Your Genes,weblink registration, Tagliaferro, Linda, Mark Vincent Bloom, 1999, Alpha Books, New York, NY,
• BOOK, 978-0-8129-7146-0, The Journey of Man : A Genetic Odyssey, Wells, Spencer, 2004, Random House Trade Paperbacks, New York, NY,
• BOOK, 978-1-4403-0057-8, The Family Tree Guide to DNA Testing and Genetic Genealogy (2nd edition 31 Aug. 2019), Bettinger, Blaine, 2019, Family Tree Books, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, "Highly recommended book for beginners by various professional genetic genealogists and advanced amateur genealogists, and on genetic genealogy Facebook groups".

Documentaries

AV MEDIA, Jennifer Beamish (producer); Clive Maltby (director); Spencer Wells (host), 2003, The Journey of Man, DVD, Alexandria, VA, PBS, PBS Home Video, B0000AYL48, 978-0-7936-9625-3, 924430061,

Journals

• JOURNAL, Decker, 10.1016/j.fsigen.2007.01.012, 19083761, The impact of additional Y-STR loci on resolving common haplotypes and closely related individuals, 2007, A.E., Kline, M.C., Vallone, P.M., Butler, J.M., Forensic Science International: Genetics, 1, 2, 215–217,weblink
• JOURNAL, Dula, 10.1046/j.1471-8731.2003.00069.x, The Ethical and Social Implications of Exploring African American Genealogies, 2003, Annette, Royal, Charmaine, Secundy, Marian Gray, Miles, Steven, Developing World Bioethics, 3, 2, 133–41, 14768645,
• JOURNAL, Elhaik, 10.1093/gbe/evt066, The GenoChip: A New Tool for Genetic Anthropology, 2013, E., Greenspan, E., Staats, S., Krahn, T., Tyler-Smith, C., Xue, Y., Tofanelli, S., Francalacci, P., Cucca, F., Genome Biology and Evolution, 5, 5, 1021–31, 23666864, 3673633,
• JOURNAL, El-Haj, 10.1525/ae.2007.34.2.223, Rethinking genetic genealogy: A response to Stephan Palmi, 2007, Nadia ABU, American Ethnologist, 34, 2, 223–226,
• JOURNAL, Fujimura, 10.1177/0306312710379170, Different differences: The use of 'genetic ancestry' versus race in biomedical human genetic research, 2010, J. H., Rajagopalan, R., Social Studies of Science, 41, 5–30, 21553638, 1, 3124377,
• JOURNAL, Golubovsky, 10.1093/humrep/den052, Unexplained infertility in Charles Darwin's family: Genetic aspect, 2008, M., Human Reproduction, 23, 5, 1237–8, 18353904, free,
• JOURNAL, Gymrek, 10.1126/science.1229566, Identifying Personal Genomes by Surname Inference, 2013, M., McGuire, A. L., Golan, D., Halperin, E., Erlich, Y., 3473659, Science, 339, 6117, 321–4, 23329047, 2013Sci...339..321G,
• JOURNAL, Larmuseau, 10.1002/ajpa.22233, Genetic genealogy comes of age: Perspectives on the use of deep-rooted pedigrees in human population genetics, 2013, M.H.D., Van Geystelen, A., Van Oven, M., Decorte, R., American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 150, 4, 505–11, 23440589,
• JOURNAL, Larmuseau, 10.1038/hdy.2012.17, In the name of the migrant father—Analysis of surname origins identifies genetic admixture events undetectable from genealogical records, 2012, M H D, Vanoverbeke, J, Gielis, G, Vanderheyden, N, Larmuseau, H F M, Decorte, R, Heredity, 109, 2, 90–5, 22511074, 3400745,
• JOURNAL, McEwen, 10.1016/j.tig.2013.02.001, Evolving approaches to the ethical management of genomic data, 2013, Jean E., Boyer, Joy T., Sun, Kathie Y., Trends in Genetics, 29, 6, 375–82, 23453621, 3665610,
• JOURNAL, Moore, CeCe, 2016, The History of Genetic Genealogy and Unknown Parentage Research: An Insider's View, Journal of Genetic Genealogy, 8, 1, 35–37,
• JOURNAL, Nash, 10.1080/0950238042000181593, Genetic kinship, 2004, Catherine, Cultural Studies, 18, 1–33, 218547032,
• JOURNAL, Nelson, 10.1177/0306312708091929, Bio Science: Genetic Genealogy Testing and the Pursuit of African Ancestry, 2008, A., 7654852, Social Studies of Science, 38, 5, 759–83, 19227820,
• JOURNAL, Royal, 10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.03.011, Inferring Genetic Ancestry: Opportunities, Challenges, and Implications, 2010, Charmaine D., Novembre, John, Fullerton, Stephanie M., Goldstein, David B., Long, Jeffrey C., Bamshad, Michael J., Clark, Andrew G., The American Journal of Human Genetics, 86, 5, 661–673, 20466090, 2869013,
• JOURNAL, Sims, 10.1371/journal.pone.0005792, Improved Resolution Haplogroup G Phylogeny in the Y Chromosome, Revealed by a Set of Newly Characterized SNPs, 2009, Batzer, Mark A, Lynn M., Garvey, Dennis, Ballantyne, Jack, PLOS ONE, 4, 6, e5792, 19495413, 2686153, 2009PLoSO...4.5792S, free,
• JOURNAL, Su, 10.1007/s12687-011-0048-y, Users' motivations to purchase direct-to-consumer genome-wide testing: An exploratory study of personal stories, 2011, Yeyang, Howard, Heidi C., Borry, Pascal, Journal of Community Genetics, 2, 3, 135–46, 22109820, 3186033,
• JOURNAL, Tutton, 10.1080/1463677042000189606, "They want to know where they came from": Population genetics, identity, and family genealogy, 2004, Richard, 22737465, New Genetics and Society, 23, 105–20, 15470787, 1,
• JOURNAL, Van Oven, 10.1002/humu.20921, Updated comprehensive phylogenetic tree of global human mitochondrial DNA variation, 2009, Mannis, Kayser, Manfred, 27566749, Human Mutation, 30, 2, E386–94, 18853457, free,
• JOURNAL, Williams, 10.1007/s11013-005-7426-3, 16249951, Genetic Genealogy: The Woodson Family's Experience, 2005, Sloan R., Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 29, 2, 225–252, 24648033,
• JOURNAL, Wolinsky, 10.1038/sj.embor.7400843, Genetic genealogy goes global. Although useful in investigating ancestry, the application of genetics to traditional genealogy could be abused, 2006, Howard, EMBO Reports, 7, 11, 1072–4, 17077861, 1679782,
• JOURNAL, Zabel, Joseph, 10.15779/Z385D8NF71, The Killer Inside Us: Law, Ethics, and the Forensic Use of Family Genetics, Berkeley Journal of Criminal Law, 2019, 24, 2, 31 January 2024,weblink
• JOURNAL, Greytak, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2019.03.039, Genetic genealogy for cold case and active investigationsfirst1=Ellen M.

first2=CeCe first3=Steven L. volume=299pmid=30991209, 109110359,

External links

{{Commons category}}

• Shared cM Project – how to determine ones relationship based on Centimorgan (cM) values

{{Genetics}}