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File:Stiftshuette Modell Timnapark.jpg|thumb|Model of the Tabernacle constructed under the auspices of Moses, in Timna Park, upright=1.15

Historical Israelites

{{see also|History of ancient Israel and Judah|History of Israel|History of Palestine}}Efforts to confirm the biblical ethnogenesis of Israel through archaeology has largely been abandoned as unproductive. Many scholars see the traditional narratives as national myths with little historical value, but some posit that a small group of exiled Egyptians contributed to the Exodus narrative.{{efn|“While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt ...” “Archaeology does not really contribute to the debate over the historicity or even historical background of the Exodus itself, but if there was indeed such a group, it contributed the Exodus story to that of all Israel. While I agree that it is most likely that there was such a group, I must stress that this is based on an overall understanding of the development of collective memory and of the authorship of the texts (and their editorial process). Archaeology, unfortunately, cannot directly contribute (yet?) to the study of this specific group of Israel’s ancestors.“{{sfn|Faust|2015|p=476}}}} William G. Dever cautiously identifies this group with the Tribe of Joseph, while Richard Elliott Friedman identifies it with the Tribe of Levi.{{sfn|Dever|2003|p=231}}BOOK, Friedman, Richard Elliott,books.google.com/books?id=_sbADQAAQBAJ, The Exodus, 2017-09-12, HarperCollins, 978-0-06-256526-6, en, 15 May 2022,web.archive.org/web/20230701135632/https://books.google.com/books?id=_sbADQAAQBAJ, 1 July 2023, live, Josephus quoting Manetho identifies them with the Hyksos.BOOK, Assmann, Jan,books.google.com/books?id=XEMadfTi_U4C&q=Osarsiph&pg=PA227, The Mind of Egypt: History and Meaning in the Time of the Pharaohs, 2003, Harvard University Press, 978-0-674-01211-0, BOOK,archive.org/details/L186JosephusILifeAgainstApion, L 186 Josephus I Life Against Apion, English, Other scholars believe that the Exodus narrative was a “collective memory” of several events from the Bronze Age.{{sfn|Na’aman|2011|pp=62-69}}BOOK, Rethinking Israel: Studies in the History and Archaeology of Ancient Israel in Honor of Israel Finkelstein, Killebrew, Ann E., Pennsylvania State University Press, 2017, 978-1-57506-787-2, 151–158, Lipschits, Oded, “Out of the Land of Egypt, Out of the House of Slavery...” (Exodus 20:2): Forced Migration, Slavery and the Emergence of Israel, Gadot, Yuval, Adams, Matthew Joel,www.academia.edu/43737298, In addition, it is unlikely that the Israelites overtook southern Levant by force, according to archaeological evidence. Instead, they branched out of indigenous Canaanite peoples that long inhabited the region, which included Syria, ancient Israel, and the Transjordan region.{{sfn|Tubb|1998|pp=13–14}}{{sfn|McNutt|1999|p=47}}K. L. Noll (2001). Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701140145books.google.com/books?id=2rnyjxLHy-QC&pg=PA164|date=1 July 2023}} A&C Black. p. 164: “It would seem that, in the eyes of Merneptah’s artisans, Israel was a Canaanite group indistinguishable from all other Canaanite groups.” “It is likely that Merneptah’s Israel was a group of Canaanites located in the Jezreel Valley.” Their culture was monolatristic, with a primary focus on Yahweh (or El) worship,{{sfn|Cross|1973}} but after the Babylonian exile, it became monotheistic, with partial influence from Zoroastrianism. The latter decisively separated the Israelites from other Canaanites.{{sfn|Tubb|1998|pp=13–14}}{{Failed verification|date=May 2024|reason=None of these sources mention anything about Zoroastrianism.}} The Israelites used a Canaanite script known as Biblical Hebrew. The script’s modern descendant Hebrew is today the only surviving dialect of the Canaanite languages.BOOK, Moore Cross, Frank, Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in History of the Religion of Israel, Harvard University Press, 1997, 0-674-09176-0, Massachusetts, 62, BOOK, Kuzar, Ron, Hebrew and Zionism: a discourse analytic cultural study, Mouton de Gruyter, 2001, 3-11-016993-2, Berlin, 235, Gary Rendsburg argues that some archaic biblical traditions and other circumstantial evidence point to the Israelites emerging from the Shasu and other seminomadic peoples from the desert regions south of the Levant, later settling in the highlands of Canaan.BOOK, “An Excellent Fortress for His Armies, a Refuge for the People”: Egyptological, Archaeological, and Biblical Studies in Honor of James K. Hoffmeier, Rendsburg, Gary A., Pennsylvania State University Press, 2020, 978-1-57506-994-4, 327–339, Averbeck, Richard E., Israelite Origins, Younger (Jr.), K. Lawson,jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/docman/rendsburg/845-israelite-origins-hoffmeier-fs-1,

Origins

File:Canaanites and Shasu Leader captives from Ramses III’s tile collection; By Niv Lugassi.png|thumb|Ramesses III prisoner tiles depicting precursors of the Israelites in Canaan: Canaanites from (city-state]]s and a Shasu leader.WEB,www.baslibrary.org/biblical-archaeology-review/34/6/9, Shasu or Habiru: Who Were the Early Israelites?, 24 August 2015, The BAS Library, 16 October 2022, 16 October 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221016114617/https://www.baslibrary.org/biblical-archaeology-review/34/6/9, live, WEB,www.fsmitha.com/h1/ch04-2.htm, Israelites as Canaanites, Macrohistory: World History, 3 March 2019, 3 January 2019,www.fsmitha.com/h1/ch04-2.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20190103145513www.fsmitha.com/h1/ch04-2.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20190103145513www.fsmitha.com/h1/ch04-2.htm, live, WEB,www.baslibrary.org/biblical-archaeology-review/34/6/8, Inside, Outside: Where Did the Early Israelites Come From?, 24 August 2015, The BAS Library, 16 October 2022, 16 October 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221016114612/https://www.baslibrary.org/biblical-archaeology-review/34/6/8, live, |upright=0.7)Several theories exist for the origins of historical Israelites. Some believe they descended from raiding groups, itinerant nomads such as Habiru and Shasu or impoverished Canaanites, who were forced to leave wealthy urban areas and live in the highlands.BOOK, Killebrew, Ann E., The Oxford Handbook of the Historical Books of the Hebrew Bible, Oxford University Press, 2020, 978-0-19-026116-0, Kelle, Brad E., 79–93, Early Israel’s Origins, Settlement, and Ethnogenesis, 31 March 2023, Strawn, Brent A.,books.google.com/books?id=7y4DEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA79,web.archive.org/web/20230331202929/https://books.google.com/books?id=7y4DEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA79, 31 March 2023, live, The prevailing academic opinion is that the Israelites were a mixture of peoples predominately indigenous to Canaan, with additional input from an Egyptian matrix of peoples, which most likely inspired the Exodus narrative.Mittleman, Alan (2010). “Judaism: Covenant, Pluralism and Piety”. In Turner, Bryan S., ed. The New Blackwell Companion to the Sociology of Religion. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 340–363, 346.Gottwald, Norman (1999). Tribes of Yahweh: A Sociology of the Religion of Liberated Israel, 1250–1050 BCE. A&C Black. p. 433. cf. 455–56.Gabriel, Richard A. (2003). The Military History of Ancient Israel. Greenwood. p. 63: “The ethnically mixed character of the Israelites is reflected even more clearly in the foreign names of the group’s leadership. Moses himself, of course, has an Egyptian name. But so do Hophni, Phinehas, Hur, and Merari, the son of Levi.” Israel’s demographics were similar to the demographics of Ammon, Edom, Moab and Phoenicia.{{sfn|Tubb|1998}}{{page needed|date=March 2024}}Besides their focus on Yahweh worship, Israelite cultural markers were defined by body, food and time. This included male circumcision, avoidance of pork consumption and marking time based on the Exodus, the reigns of Israelite kings, Sabbath observance etc. The first two markers were observed by neighboring west Semites besides the Philistines, who were of Mycenaean Greek origin. As a result, intermarriage with other Semites was common.BOOK, Hendel, Ronald,books.google.com/books?id=An08DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3, Remembering Abraham: Culture, Memory, and History in the Hebrew Bible, 2005, Oxford University Press, 978-0-19-517796-1, 3–30, File:IHM מזבח הר עיבל.jpeg|thumb|The Mount Ebal structure, seen by many archeologists as an early Israelite cultic site]]Genealogy was another factor that differentiated the Israelites. It was a matter of cultural self-identity rather than biological descent. For example, foreign clans could adopt the identity of other clans, which subsequently changed their status from “outsider” to “insider”. This applied to Israelites from different tribes and gentiles. Saul Oylan argued that foreigners automatically became Israelite if they lived in their territory, according to {{Bibleverse|Ezekiel|47:21-23}}.BOOK, Olyan, Saul, Rites and Rank: Hierarchy in Biblical Representations of Cult, 2000, Princeton University Press, 978-0-691-02948-1, That said, Israelites used genealogy to engage in narcissism of small differences but also, self-criticism since their ancestors included morally questionable characters such as Jacob. Both these traits represented the “complexities of the Jewish soul”.In terms of appearance, the Hebrew Bible records figures, such as David, Esau and the lovers in the Song of Songs, as being “ruddy”,BOOK, Harvey, John E.,books.google.com/books?id=nj-tAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64, Retelling the Torah: The Deuternonmistic Historian’s Use of Tetrateuchal Narratives, 22 June 2004, A&C Black, 978-0-567-08095-0, 64, 1091803543, BOOK, McKenzie, Steven L.,books.google.com/books?id=WHY7q1u8mP4C&pg=PA65, King David: A Biography, 27 April 2000, Oxford University Press, 978-0-19-535101-9, 65, 1035651169, “white and ruddy” and “clear as the moon”,BOOK, Hillers, Delbert R.,books.google.com/books?id=bDULEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19, Poets Before Homer: Collected Essays on Ancient Literature, 11 February 2015, Penn State Press, 978-1-57506-723-0, W. Dobbs-Allsopp, F., 19, 1055388179, BOOK, Melamed, Abraham,books.google.com/books?id=GVmQAgAAQBAJ, The Image of the Black in Jewish Culture: A History of the Other, 2 September 2003, Routledge, 978-1-135-78983-1, 35, 212, which aligned with descriptions of Levantine phenotypes in ancient Egyptian and Greek sources.“The first are RETH, the second are AAMU, the third are NEHESU, and the fourth are THEMEHU. The RETH are Egyptians, the AAMU are dwellers in the deserts to the east and north-east of Egypt, the NEHESU are the Cushites, and the THEMEHU are the fair-skinned Libyans”. Book of Gates, chapter VI ({{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310112202www.sacred-texts.com/egy/gate/gate20.htm|date=10 March 2016}}), translated by E. A. Wallis Budge, 1905.{{sfn|Thavapalan|2019|loc=pp. 155–156: “As a point of correlation to visual culture, one can observe that in Egyptian art too, Nubians from the south are painted black. Egyptian natives were portrayed with a red-brown complexion, Syrians or Asiatic peoples from the north and east were shown in pale tones and Libyans from the west were represented in white“}}BOOK, Premnath, D. N.,books.google.com/books?id=6yWuZDUMICcC&pg=PA73, Eighth Century Prophets: a Social Analysis, Chalice Press, 978-0-8272-0831-5, 73, BOOK, Godbey, Allen Howard,books.google.com/books?id=8o4aAAAAIAAJ, The Lost Tribes a Myth: Suggestions Towards Rewriting Hebrew History, 1974, Ktav, 978-0-87068-198-1, 60, 1018047360, BOOK, Dantzig, Tobias,books.google.com/books?id=ZQvmDAAAQBAJ, Mathematics in Ancient Greece, 17 November 2006, Courier, 978-0-486-45347-7, 21, 1022689821, Rabbis, on the other hand, described the Biblical Jews as being “midway between black and white” and having the “color of the boxwood tree”.{{sfn|Goldenberg|2009|p=95}}Israelite men, like other western Semites, have full, round beards according to Egyptian and Assyrian inscriptions. In contrast, their neighbors, such as Babylonians and Egyptians, have long beards and chin tufts respectively but this was an upper-class custom. Joseph’s act of shaving ({{Bibleverse|Genesis|41:14}}) was thought to resemble the Egyptian custom.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Beard, The Jewish Encyclopedia,www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2690-beard,web.archive.org/web/20240314092309/https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2690-beard, March 14, 2024, Muller, W. Max, Ginzberg, Louis, Adler, Cyrus, Merneptah’s Karnak reliefs indicate that the early Israelites dressed like other Canaanites, in terms of attire and hairstyle.JOURNAL, Yurco, Frank J., Frank J. Yurco, 1986, Merenptah’s Canaanite Campaign, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 23, 195, 207, 10.2307/40001099, 40001099, JOURNAL, Hasel, Michael G., 2003, Merenptah’s Inscription and Reliefs and the Origin of Israel (The Near East in the Southwest: Essays in Honor of William G. Dever), Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Boston, American Schools of Oriental Research, 58, 27–36, 0-89757-065-0, 3768554, Beth Alpert, Nakhai, BOOK, Stager, Lawrence E., Lawrence Stager, The Oxford History of the Biblical World, 2001, Oxford University Press, 0-19-513937-2, Coogan, Michael, 92, Forging an Identity: The Emergence of Ancient Israel,books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA92, Dissenting from this, Anson Rainey argued that the Israelites in the reliefs looked more similar to the Shasu.JOURNAL, Israel in Merenptah’s Inscription and Reliefs, Israel Exploration Journal, Rainey, Anson F., 1, 51, 57–75, 2001, 0021-2059, 27926956,

Early Israelite settlements

In the 12th century BCE, many Israelite settlements appeared in the central hill country of Canaan, which was formerly an open terrain. These settlements lacked evidence of pork consumption, compared to Philistine settlements, have four-room houses and lived by an egalitarian ethos, which was exemplified by the absence of elaborate tombs, governor’s mansions, certain houses being bigger than others etc. They followed a mixed economy, which prioritized self-sufficiency, cultivation of crops, animal husbandry and small-scale craft production. New technologies such as terraced farming, silos for grain storage and cisterns for rainwater collection were simultaneously introduced.BOOK, Rendsburg, Gary A.,jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/docman/rendsburg/877-ch-3-text-notes/file, Ancient Israel: From Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple, 2021, Biblical Archaeology Society, John Merill, The Emergence of Israel in Canaan, Hershel Shanks, 978-1-880317-23-5, 59–91, These settlements were built by inhabitants of the “general Southland” (i.e. modern Sinai and the southern parts of Israel and Jordan), who abandoned their pastoral-nomadic ways. Canaanites who lived outside the central hill country were tenuously identified as Danites, Asherites, Zebulunites, Issacharites, Naphtalites and Gadites. These inhabitants do not have a significant history of migration besides the Danites, who allegedly originate from the Sea Peoples, particularly the Dan(an)u.Mark W. Bartusch, Understanding Dan: an exegetical study of a biblical city, tribe and ancestor, Volume 379 of Journal for the study of the Old Testament: Supplement series, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2003 Nonetheless, they intermingled with the former nomads, due to socioeconomic and military factors. Their interest in Yahwism and its concern for the underprivileged was another factor. Possible allusions to this historical reality in the Hebrew Bible include the aforementioned tribes, except for Issachar and Zebulun, descending from Bilhah and Zilpah, who were viewed as “secondary additions” to Israel.El worship was central to early Israelite culture but currently, the number of El worshippers in Israel is unknown. It is more likely that different Israelite locales held different views about El and had ‘small-scale’ sacred spaces.BOOK, Lewis, Theodore J.,books.google.com/books?id=-erqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73, The Origin and Character of God: Ancient Israelite Religion through the Lens of Divinity, 2020, Oxford University Press, 978-0190072544, 73–118, {{sfn|Cross|1973}}

Monarchic period

United Monarchy

File:Black Obelisk side 4 Jewish delegation.jpg|thumb|Part of the gift-bearing Israelite delegation of King Jehu, Black ObeliskBlack ObeliskThe historicity of the United Monarchy is heavily debated among archaeologists and biblical scholars: biblical maximalists and centrists (Kenneth Kitchen, William G. Dever, Amihai Mazar, Baruch Halpern and others) argue that the biblical account is more or less accurate, biblical minimalists (Israel Finkelstein, Ze’ev Herzog, Thomas L. Thompson and others) argue that Israel and Judah never split from a singular state. The debate has not been resolved but recent archaeological discoveries by Eilat Mazar and Yosef Garfinkel show some support for the existence of the United Monarchy.From 850 BCE onwards, a series of inscriptions mention the “House of David”. They came from Israel’s neighbors.{{sfn|Joffe|2002|p=450}}WEB, 2014-07-02, Divided Kingdom, United Critics, Biblical Archaeology Society,www.biblicalarchaeology.org/reviews/divided-kingdom-united-critics/, 2021-04-25, 9 April 2019,web.archive.org/web/20190409185456/https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/reviews/divided-kingdom-united-critics/, live,

Kingdoms of Israel and Judah

File:LMLK,_Ezekiah_seals.jpg|thumb|“To Hezekiah, son of Ahaz, king of Judah” – royal seal found at the OphelOphelCompared to the United Monarchy, the historicity of the Kingdom of Israel and Judah is widely accepted by historians and archaeologists.BOOK, Finkelstein, Israel, Israel Finkelstein, The Bible unearthed: archaeology’s new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories, Silberman, Neil Asher, Neil Asher Silberman, 2001, Simon & Schuster, 978-0-684-86912-4, 1st Touchstone, New York, {{rp|169–195}}WEB, Wright, Jacob L., July 2014, David, King of Judah (Not Israel),www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml,www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml," title="web.archive.org/web/20210301164250www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml,">web.archive.org/web/20210301164250www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml, 1 March 2021, 15 May 2021, The Bible and Interpretation, Their destruction by the Assyrians and Babylonians respectively is also confirmed by archaeological evidence and extrabiblical sources.WEB, British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BCE),www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx,web.archive.org/web/20141030154541/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx, 30 October 2014, 30 October 2014, WEB, ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle),www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html,web.archive.org/web/20190505195611/https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html, 5 May 2019, 8 February 2022, www.livius.org, BOOK, Faust, Avraham,books.google.com/books?id=NcnPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA119, Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period: The Archaeology of Desolation, Society of Biblical Lit., 2012, 978-1-58983-641-9, 140–143, JOURNAL, Yardenna Alexandre, 2020, The Settlement History of Nazareth in the Iron Age and Early Roman Period,www.atiqot.org.il/download.ashx?id=1797, live, ‘Atiqot, 98,www.atiqot.org.il/download.ashx?id=1797," title="web.archive.org/web/20200526102938www.atiqot.org.il/download.ashx?id=1797,">web.archive.org/web/20200526102938www.atiqot.org.il/download.ashx?id=1797, 26 May 2020, 26 May 2020, {{rp|306}} Christian Frevel argues that Yahwism was rooted in the culture of the Kingdom of Israel, who introduced it to the Kingdom of Judah via Ahab’s expansions and sociopolitical cooperation, which was prompted by Hazael’s conquests.JOURNAL, Frevel, Christian, 2021, When and from Where did YHWH Emerge? Some Reflections on Early Yahwism in Israel and Judah, Entangled Religions, 12, 2, 10.46586/er.12.2021.8776, 2363-6696, free, 2263/84039, free, Frevel has also argued that Judah was a ‘vassal-like’ state to Israel, under the Omrides. This theory has been rejected by other scholars, who argue that the archaeological evidence seems to indicate that Judah was an independent socio-political entity for most of the 9th century BCE.BOOK, “And in Length of Days Understanding” (Job 12:12): Essays on Archaeology in the Eastern Mediterranean and Beyond in Honor of Thomas E. Levy, Gadot, Yuval, Springer Nature, 2023, 978-3-031-27330-8, 771–786, Kleiman, Assaf, Uziel, Joe, Ben-Yosef, Erez, The Interconnections Between Jerusalem and Samaria in the Ninth to Eighth Centuries BCE: Material Culture, Connectivity and Politics, Jones, Ian W. N.,books.google.com/books?id=NcPOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA772, Avraham Faust argues that there was continued adherence to the ‘ethos of egalitarianism and simplicity’ in the Iron Age II (10th-6th century BCE). For example, there is minimal evidence for temples and complex tomb burials, despite Israel and Judah being more densely populated than the Late Bronze Age. Four-room houses remained the norm. In addition, royal inscriptions were scarce, along with imported and decorated pottery.JOURNAL, Faust, Avraham, 2019, Israelite Temples: Where Was Israelite Cult Not Practiced, and Why, Religions, 10, 2, 106, 10.3390/rel10020106, 2077-1444, free, The Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire around 720 BCE.{{sfn|Hasegawa|Levin|Radner|2018|p=55}} The records of Sargon II of Assyria indicate that he deported part of the population to Assyria. This deportation became the basis for the Jewish idea of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel. Some Israelites migrated to the southern kingdom of Judah,JOURNAL, Finkelstein, Israel, 2015-06-28, Migration of Israelites into Judah after 720 BCE: An Answer and an Update,doi.org/10.1515/zaw-2015-0011, Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, en, 127, 2, 188–206, 10.1515/zaw-2015-0011, 1613-0103, 171178702, while those Israelites that remained in Samaria, concentrated mainly around Mount Gerizim, came to be known as Samaritans.{{sfn|Shen|Lavi|Kivisild|Chou|2004}}BOOK, Finkelstein, Israel,worldcat.org/oclc/949151323, The forgotten kingdom : the archaeology and history of Northern Israel, Society of Biblical Literature, 2013, 978-1-58983-910-6, 158, 949151323, Foreign groups were also settled by the Assyrians in the territories of the conquered kingdom.The exiled Israelites from non-Judean regions faced assimilation into the Assyrian population, unlike their counterparts from Judea.JOURNAL, Lyman, Stanford M., 1998, The Lost Tribes of Israel as a Problem in History and Sociology, International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, 12, 1, 7–42, 10.1023/A:1025902603291, 20019954, 141243508, While historical records indicate the disappearance of Israelite tribes from Galilee and Transjordan, it’s plausible that many Israelites from Samaria survived and remained in the region.{{Citation |last=Tobolowsky |first=Andrew |title=The Tribes That Were Not Lost: The Samaritans |date=2022 |work=The Myth of the Twelve Tribes of Israel: New Identities Across Time and Space |pages=69 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gBhdEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 |access-date=2024-05-04 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781009091435.003 |isbn=978-1-316-51494-8}} These survivors, contrary to Jewish tradition,BOOK, Pummer, Reinhard, The Samaritans: A Profile, 2016, Eerdmans, 978-0-8028-6768-1, 13, are believed to have become the ancestors of the Samaritans, who followed Samaritanism. Research indicates that only a portion of this population intermarried with Mesopotamians settlers.BOOK, Cline, Eric H., From Eden to Exile: Unraveling Mysteries of the Bible, 2008, National Geographic (US), 978-1-4262-0208-7, JOURNAL, Shen, Peidong, Lavi, Tal, Kivisild, Toomas, Chou, Vivian, Sengun, Deniz, Gefel, Dov, Shpirer, Issac, Woolf, Eilon, Hillel, Jossi, Feldman, Marcus W., Oefner, Peter J., 2004, Reconstruction of patrilineages and matrilineages of Samaritans and other Israeli populations from Y-Chromosome and mitochondrial DNA sequence Variation, Human Mutation, 24, 3, 248–260, 10.1002/humu.20077, 1059-7794, 15300852, 1571356, In their native Samaritan Hebrew, the Samaritans identify as “Israel”, “B’nai Israel” or “Shamerim/Shomerim” (i.e. “Guardians/Keepers/Watchers“).{{sfn|Manzur|1979}}JOURNAL, Bowman, John, 8 February 1963, BANŪ ISRÄ€’ĪL IN THE QUR’Ä€N, Islamic Studies, Islamic Research Institute, 2, 4, 447–455, 20832712, This tiny community called by the Jews and the Christians, the Samaritans, call themselves Israel or Shomerim, the Keepers (of the Torah, i.e., Tawr?t)., WEB, The Samaritan Identity,www.the-samaritans.net/, 15 September 2023, The Israelite Samaritan Community in Israel, “Our real name is, ‘Bene- Yisrael Ha -Shamerem (D’nU- -D’7nU) - in Hebrew , which means ‘The Keepers’, or to be precise, the Israelite - Keepers, as we observe the ancient Israelite tradition, since the time of our prophet Moses and the people of Israel. The modern terms, ‘Samaritans’ and ‘Jews’, given by the Assyrians, indicate the settlement of the Samaritans in the area of Samaria, and the Jews in the area of Judah.”, WEB, 26 May 2020, The Keepers: Israelite Samaritan Identity,www.israelite-samaritans.com/history/keepers-israelite-samaritan-identity/, 15 September 2023, Israelite Samaritan Information Institute, “We are not Samaritans; this is what the Assyrians called the people of Samaria. We, The Keepers, Sons of Israel, Keepers of the Word of the Torah, never adopted the name Samaritans. Our forefathers only used the name when speaking to outsiders about our community. Through the ages we have referred to ourselves as The Keepers.”, Towards the end of the same century, the Neo-Babylonian Empire emerged victorious over the Assyrians, leading to Judah’s subjugation as a vassal state. In the early 6th century BC, a series of revolts in Judah prompted the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II to lay siege to and destroy Jerusalem along with the First Temple, marking the kingdom’s demise. Subsequently, a segment of the Judahite populace was exiled to Babylon in several waves.NEWS, Baker, Luke, 3 February 2017, Ancient tablets reveal life of Jews in Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylon,www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203, Reuters, Judeans were progenitors of the Jews,BOOK, Spielvogel, Jackson J., Western Civilization: Volume A: To 1500, Wadsworth Publishing, 2008, 978-0-495-50288-3, 36, The people of Judah survived, eventually becoming known as the Jews and giving their name to Judaism, the religion of Yahweh, the Israelite God., who practiced Second Temple Judaism during the Second Temple period.BOOK, Catherine Cory,books.google.com/books?id=SsZcCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20, Christian Theological Tradition, 13 August 2015, Routledge, 978-1-317-34958-7, p. 20 and forwards, BOOK, Stephen Benko,books.google.com/books?id=LHHxkapsiEgC&pg=PA22, Pagan Rome and the Early Christians, Indiana University Press, 1984, 978-0-253-34286-7, p. 22 and forwards,

Later history

With the fall of Babylon to the rising Achaemenid Persian Empire, king Cyrus the Great issued a proclamation known as the Edict of Cyrus, encouraging the exiles to return to their homeland after the Persians raised it as an autonomous Jewish-governed province named Yehud. Under the Persians ({{circa|539–332 BCE}}), the returned Jewish population restored the city and rebuilt the Temple in Jerusalem. The Cyrus Cylinder is controversially cited as evidence for Cyrus allowing the Judeans to return.BOOK, Winn Leith, Mary Joan,books.google.com/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C&q=The+Oxford+History+of+the+Biblical+World, The Oxford History of the Biblical World, Oxford University Press, 2001, 0-19-513937-2, Michael David Coogan, Oxford; New York City, New York, 285, Israel among the Nations: The Persian Period, Google Books, 98016042, 44650958, 14 December 2012, 1998,books.google.com/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C&q=The+Oxford+History+of+the+Biblical+World, BOOK, Becking, Bob, Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period, Eisenbrauns, 2006, 978-1-57506-104-7, Lipschitz, Oded, Winona Lake, IN, 8, “We All Returned as One!”: Critical Notes on the Myth of the Mass Return, Oeming, Manfred,books.google.com/books?id=1zi2i_C1aNkC&q=%22Cyrus+cylinder%22+Jerusalem&pg=PA8, The returnees showed a “heightened sense” of their ethnic identity and shunned exogamy, which was treated as a “permissive reality” in Babylon.Katherine ER. Southward, Ethnicity and the Mixed Marriage Crisis in Ezra, 9–10: An Anthropological Approach, Oxford University Press 2012 pp.103–203, esp. p.193.WEB, Pearce, Laurie, 2022, Jews Intermarried Not Only in Judea but Also in Babylonia,www.thetorah.com/article/jews-intermarried-not-only-in-judea-but-also-in-babylonia,web.archive.org/web/20240412043706/https://www.thetorah.com/article/jews-intermarried-not-only-in-judea-but-also-in-babylonia, April 12, 2024, TheTorah.com, Circumcision was no longer a significant ethnic marker, with increased emphasis on genealogical descent or faith in Yahweh.BOOK, Thiessen, Matthew,academic.oup.com/book/5287/chapter/148016316?login=true#273599969, Contesting Conversion: Genealogy, Circumcision, and Identity in Ancient Judaism and Christianity, 2011, Oxford University Press, 978-0-19-991445-6, 87–110, JOURNAL, Lau, Peter H.W., 2009, Gentile Incorporation into Israel in Ezra - Nehemiah?,www.jstor.org/stable/42614919, Peeters Publishers, 90, 3, 356–373, 42614919, JSTOR, In 332 BCE, the Achaemenid Empire fell to Alexander the Great, and the region was later incorporated into the Ptolemaic Kingdom ({{circa|301–200 BCE}}) and the Seleucid Empire ({{circa|200–167 BCE}}). The Maccabean Revolt against Seleucid rule ushered in a period of nominal independence for the Jewish people under the Hasmonean dynasty (140–37 BCE). Initially operating semi-autonomously within the Seleucid sphere, the Hasmoneans gradually asserted full independence through military conquest and diplomacy, establishing themselves as the final sovereign Jewish rulers before a prolonged hiatus in Jewish sovereignty in the region.BOOK, Helyer, Larry R.,worldcat.org/oclc/961153992, The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts, McDonald, Lee Martin, Baker Academic, 2013, 978-0-8010-9861-1, Green, Joel B., 45–47, The Hasmoneans and the Hasmonean Era, 961153992, The ensuing power struggle left Hyrcanus with a free hand in Judea, and he quickly reasserted Jewish sovereignty... Hyrcanus then engaged in a series of military campaigns aimed at territorial expansion. He first conquered areas in the Transjordan. He then turned his attention to Samaria, which had long separated Judea from the northern Jewish settlements in Lower Galilee. In the south, Adora and Marisa were conquered; (Aristobulus’) primary accomplishment was annexing and Judaizing the region of Iturea, located between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains, McDonald, Lee Martin, BOOK, Ben-Sasson, H.H., A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, 0-674-39731-2, 226, The expansion of Hasmonean Judea took place gradually. Under Jonathan, Judea annexed southern Samaria and began to expand in the direction of the coast plain... The main ethnic changes were the work of John Hyrcanus... it was in his days and those of his son Aristobulus that the annexation of Idumea, Samaria and Galilee and the consolidation of Jewish settlement in Trans-Jordan was completed. Alexander Jannai, continuing the work of his predecessors, expanded Judean rule to the entire coastal plain, from the Carmel to the Egyptian border... and to additional areas in Trans-Jordan, including some of the Greek cities there., {{Citation |last=Smith |first=Morton |title=The Gentiles in Judaism 125 BCE - 66 CE |date=1999 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 3: The Early Roman Period |volume=3 |pages=192–249 |editor-last=Sturdy |editor-first=John |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-judaism/gentiles-in-judaism-125-bcece-66/1AC78E99125BFE8E215AC8137DD8FE32 |access-date=2023-03-20 |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521243773.008 |isbn=978-0-521-24377-3 |quote=These changes accompanied and were partially caused by the great extension of the Judaeans’ contacts with the peoples around them. Many historians have chronicled the Hasmonaeans’ territorial acquisitions. In sum, it took them twenty-five years to win control of the tiny territory of Judaea and get rid of the Seleucid colony of royalist Jews (with, presumably, gentile officials and garrison) in Jerusalem. [...] However, in the last years before its fall, the Hasmonaeans were already strong enough to acquire, partly by negotiation, partly by conquest, a little territory north and south of Judaea and a corridor on the west to the coast at Jaffa/Joppa. This was briefly taken from them by Antiochus Sidetes, but soon regained, and in the half century from Sidetes’ death in 129 to Alexander Jannaeus’ death in 76 they overran most of Palestine and much of western and northern Transjordan. First John Hyrcanus took over the hills of southern and central Palestine (Idumaea and the territories of Shechem, Samaria and Scythopolis) in 128–104; then his son, Aristobulus I, took Galilee in 104–103, and Aristobulus’ brother and successor, Jannaeus, in about eighteen years of warfare (103–96, 86–76) conquered and reconquered the coastal plain, the northern Negev, and western edge of Transjordan. |editor2-last=Davies |editor2-first=W. D. |editor3-last=Horbury |editor3-first=William}}BOOK, Ben-Eliyahu, Eyal,worldcat.org/oclc/1103519319, Identity and Territory: Jewish Perceptions of Space in Antiquity, 30 April 2019, Univ of California Press, 978-0-520-29360-1, 13, 1103519319, From the beginning of the Second Temple period until the Muslim conquest—the land was part of imperial space. This was true from the early Persian period, as well as the time of Ptolemy and the Seleucids. The only exception was the Hasmonean Kingdom, with its sovereign Jewish rule—first over Judah and later, in Alexander Jannaeus’s prime, extending to the coast, the north, and the eastern banks of the Jordan., Some scholars argue that Jews also engaged in active missionary efforts in the Greco-Roman world, which led to conversions.Louis H. Feldman, “The Omnipresence of the God-Fearers”, Biblical Archaeology Review 12, 5 (1986), Center for Online Judaic Studies.Shaye J. D. Cohen, From the Maccabees to the Mishnah (1989), pp. 55–59, Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, {{ISBN|978-0-664-25017-1}}.A. T. Kraabel, J. Andrew Overman, Robert S. MacLennan, Diaspora Jews and Judaism: essays in honor of, and in dialogue with, A. Thomas Kraabel (1992), Scholars Press, {{ISBN|978-15-55406-96-7}}. “As pious gentiles, the God-fearers stood somewhere between Greco-Roman piety and Jewish piety in the synagogue. In his classic but now somewhat outdated study titled Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era, Harvard scholar George Foot Moore argued that the existence of the God-fearers provides evidence for the synagogue’s own missionary work outside of Palestine during the first century C.E. The God-fearers were the result of this Jewish missionary movement.“BOOK, Goodman, Martin,brill.com/display/title/12543?language=en, Judaism in the Roman World, 2006, Brill, 978-90-47-41061-4, Several scholars, such as Scot McKnight and Martin Goodman, reject this view while holding that conversions occasionally occurred.JOURNAL, Gregerman, Adam, 2009, The Lack of Evidence for a Jewish Christian Countermission in Galatia,ejournals.bc.edu/index.php/scjr/article/view/1513, Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations, en, 4, 1, 13, 10.6017/scjr.v4i1.1513, 1930-3777, free, A similar diaspora existed for Samaritans but their existence is poorly documented.JOURNAL, Zsengeller, Jozsef, 2016, THE Samaritan Diaspora in Antiquity,go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA509729366&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=00445975&p=AONE&sw=w&userGroupName=anon%7E311d56ca&aty=open-web-entry, Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 56, 2, 157–175, 10.1556/068.2016.56.2.2, Gale Academic Onefile, In 63 BCE, the Roman Republic conquered the kingdom. In 37 BCE, the Romans appointed Herod the Great as king of a vassal Judea. In 6 CE, Judea was fully incorporated into the Roman Empire as the province of Judaea. During this period, the main areas of Jewish settlement in the Land of Israel were Judea, Galilee and Perea, while the Samaritans had their demographic center in Samaria. Growing dissatisfaction with Roman rule and civil disturbances eventually led to the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), resulting in the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple, which ended the Second Temple period. This event marked a cataclysmic moment in Jewish history,BOOK, Karesh, Sara E.,worldcat.org/oclc/1162305378, Encyclopedia of Judaism, Facts On File, 2006, 1-78785-171-0, 1162305378, Until the modern period, the destruction of the Temple was the most cataclysmic moment in the history of the Jewish people. Without the Temple, the Sadducees no longer had any claim to authority, and they faded away. The sage Yochanan ben Zakkai, with permission from Rome, set up the outpost of Yavneh to continue develop of Pharisaic, or rabbinic, Judaism., prompting a reconfiguration of Jewish identity and practice to ensure continuity. The cessation of Temple worship and disapperance of Temple-based sectsJOURNAL, Alföldy, Géza, 1995, Eine Bauinschrift aus dem Colosseum, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 109, 195–226, 20189648, facilitated the rise of Rabbinic Judaism, which stemmed from the Pharisaic school of Second Temple Judaism, emphasizing communal synagogue worship and Torah study, eventually becoming the predominant expression of Judaism.JOURNAL, Westwood, Ursula, 2017-04-01, A History of the Jewish War, AD 66–74,dx.doi.org/10.18647/3311/jjs-2017, Journal of Jewish Studies, 68, 1, 189–193, 10.18647/3311/jjs-2017, 0022-2097, BOOK, Maclean Rogers, Guy,worldcat.org/oclc/1294393934, For the Freedom of Zion: The Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66-74 CE, Yale University Press, 2021, 978-0-300-26256-8, New Haven and London, 3–5, 1294393934, JOURNAL, Goldenberg, Robert, 1977, The Broken Axis: Rabbinic Judaism and the Fall of Jerusalem,dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaarel/xlv.3.353, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, XLV, 3, 353, 10.1093/jaarel/xlv.3.353, 0002-7189, Concurrently, Christianity began to diverge from Judaism, evolving into a predominantly Gentile religion.BOOK, Klutz, Todd, The Early Christian World, Routledge, 2002, 9781032199344, Esler, Philip F., 1st, Routledge Worlds, New York City, New York and London, 178–190, Part II: Christian Origins and Development – Paul and the Development of Gentile Christianity,books.google.com/books?id=6fyCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA178, 2000, Decades later, the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–135 CE) further diminished the Jewish presence in Judea, leading to a geographical shift of Jewish life to Galilee and Babylonia, with smaller communities scattered across the Mediterranean.Jews and Samaritans share a connection with the biblical Land of Israel.p.xxxv, R. Yisrael Meir haKohen (Chofetz Chayim), The Concise Book of Mitzvoth. This version of the list was prepared in 1968.The Ramban’s addition to the Rambam’s Sefer HaMitzvot.WEB, 2024, ABOUT ISRAELITE SAMARITANS,www.israelite-samaritans.com/,web.archive.org/web/20240412092211/https://www.israelite-samaritans.com/, April 12, 2024, Israelite Samaritan Information Institute, Other groups claim continuity with the Israelites, including Pashtuns,BOOK, Houtsma, Martijn Theodoor,books.google.com/books?id=GEl6N2tQeawC&pg=PA150, E.J. Brill’s first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, BRILL, 1987, 90-04-08265-4, 2, 150, 24 September 2010, ENCYCLOPEDIA, The Virtual Jewish History Tour, Afghanistan, Jewish Virtual Library,www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Afghanistan.html, 10 January 2007, Oreck, Alden, British,BOOK, Brackney, William H.,books.google.com/books?id=YhUvxfkWW2oC&pg=PA61, Historical Dictionary of Radical Christianity, 3 May 2012, Scarecrow Press, 978-0-8108-7365-0, 61–62, en, 9 April 2017, Black Hebrew Israelites,WEB, Lee, Morgan, 24 January 2019, The Hebrew Israelites in That March for Life Viral Video, Explained,www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2019/january-web-only/hebrew-israelites-urban-apologetics-covington-march-life.html, 22 May 2020, Christianity Today, en, Mormons,WEB, Davies, W.D., Israel, the Mormons and the Land,rsc.byu.edu/reflections-mormonism/israel-mormons-land,web.archive.org/web/20240412091018/https://rsc.byu.edu/reflections-mormonism/israel-mormons-land, April 12, 2024, Religious Studies Center, and evangelical Christians that subscribe to covenant theology.WEB, Wellum, Stephen, 2023, Dispensational and Covenant Theology,christoverall.com/article/concise/dispensational-and-covenant-theology/#:~:text=Covenant%20theology%20argues%20that%20there,signify%20the%20same%20spiritual%20reality%2C,web.archive.org/web/20240412091335/https://christoverall.com/article/concise/dispensational-and-covenant-theology/, April 12, 2024, Christ Over All, Some argue that some Palestinians descend from Israelites who were not exiled by the Romans.Gil, Moshe. [1983] 1997. A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. pp. 222–3: “David Ben-Gurion and Yitzhak Ben-Zvi claimed that the population at the time of the Arab conquest was mainly Christian, of Jewish origins, which underwent conversion to avoid a tax burden, basing their argument on ‘the fact that at the time of the Arab conquest, the population of Palestine was mainly Christian, and that during the Crusaders’ conquest some four hundred years later, it was mainly Muslim. As neither the Byzantines nor the Muslims carried out any large-scale population resettlement projects, the Christians were the offspring of the Jewish and Samaritan farmers who converted to Christianity in the Byzantine period; while the Muslim fellaheen in Palestine in modern times are descendants of those Christians who were the descendants of Jews, and had turned to Islam before the Crusaders’ conquest.“A tragic misunderstanding â€“ Times online, 13 January 2009.

Genetics

{{further|Genetic history of the Middle East|Canaan#Genetic studies}}{{see also|Genetic studies on Jews|Samaritans#Genetic studies}}(File:Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - Samaritan Elder in Passover Prayer Service.jpg|thumb|A Samaritan elder participates in Passover prayer services held on Mount Gerizim)A 2004 study (by Shen et al.) comparing Samaritans to several Jewish populations (including Ashkenazi Jews, Iraqi Jews, Libyan Jews, Moroccan Jews, and Yemenite Jews) found that “the principal components analysis suggested a common ancestry of Samaritan and Jewish patrilineages. Most of the former may be traced back to a common ancestor in what is today identified as the paternally inherited Israelite high priesthood (Cohanim), with a common ancestor projected to the time of the Assyrian conquest of the kingdom of Israel.“WEB, Reconstruction of Patrilineages and Matrilineages of Samaritans and Other Israeli Populations From Y-Chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA Sequence Variation,evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Shen2004.pdf, live,evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Shen2004.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20130508024921evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Shen2004.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20130508024921evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Shen2004.pdf, 8 May 2013, 10 May 2010,  (855 KB), Hum Mutat 24:248–260, 2004.A 2020 study (by Agranat-Tamr et al.) stated that there was genetic continuity between Bronze Age and Iron Age southern Levantines, which included the Israelites and Judahites. They could be “modeled as a mixture of local earlier Neolithic populations and populations from the northeastern part of the Near East (e.g. Zagros Mountains, Caucasians/Armenians and possibly, Hurrians). Reasons for the continuity include resilience from the Bronze Age collapse, which was mostly true for inland cities such as Tel Megiddo and Tel Abel Beth Maacah. Elsewhere, European-related and East African-related components were added to the population, from a north-south and south-north gradient respectively. Late Neolithic and Bronze Age Europeans and Somalis were used as representatives.JOURNAL, Agranat-Tamir, Lily, Waldman, Shamam, 1, 2020-05-28, The Genomic History of the Bronze Age Southern Levant, Cell, en, 181, 5, 1146–1157.e11, 10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.024, 0092-8674, 10212583, 32470400, 219105441, free,

See also

• Demographic history of Palestine
• God-fearers
• Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites
• Hebrews
• Jacob in Islam
• Segmentary society
• Twelve Tribes of Israel
• Who is a Jew?

Notes

{{notelist}}

References

{{Reflist|30em}}

Sources

• BOOK

,

• BOOK, Cross, Frank Moore, Frank Moore Cross, 1973, Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 978-0-674-09176-4, 185400934, 72076564,books.google.com/books?id=-eOycxXAoHMC,
• BOOK, Dever, William, Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?, Eerdmans, 2003,books.google.com/books?id=8WkbUkKeqcoC, 978-0-8028-0975-9, 14 August 2015, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701140935/https://books.google.com/books?id=8WkbUkKeqcoC, live,
• BOOK

,

• BOOK, Faust, Avraham, The Emergence of Iron Age Israel: On Origins and Habitus, Israel’s Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience, Thomas E., Levy, Thomas, Schneider, William H. C., Propp,www.academia.edu/11906343, 2015, Springer, 467–482, 978-3-319-04768-3, 31 March 2023, 21 October 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211021124507/https://www.academia.edu/11906343, live,
• BOOK, Flusser, David, Judaism of the Second Temple Period, Eerdmans, 2009, 978-0-8028-2458-5,books.google.com/books?id=H0HRhUDKrlwC&pg=PA6

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• BOOK, David M., Goldenberg, 11 April 2009, The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, Princeton University Press, 90–91, 978-1-4008-2854-8, 1162398032,books.google.com/books?id=1MS9AiZ74MoC,
• BOOK, Grabbe, Lester L., Lester L. Grabbe, A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period, T&T Clark International, 2004, 978-0-567-04352-8,books.google.com/books?id=VK2fEzruIn0C, 14 August 2015, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701141234/https://books.google.com/books?id=VK2fEzruIn0C, live,
• BOOK, Grabbe, Lester L., Israel in Transition: From Late Bronze II to Iron IIa (c. 1250–850 B.C.E.), T&T Clark International, 2008, 978-0-567-02726-9,books.google.com/books?id=tR0Qpz2zRogC,
• BOOK, The Last Days of the Kingdom of Israel, Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 2018, 978-3-11-056660-4,books.google.com/books?id=Jwh2DwAAQBAJ, Hasegawa, Shuichi, Levin, Christoph, Radner, Karen

,

• JOURNAL, Joffe, Alexander H., 2002, The Rise of Secondary States in the Iron Age Levant, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 45, 4, 425–467, 10.1163/156852002320939311, 3632872,
• BOOK, Jews and Samaritans: The Origins and History of Their Early Relations

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• BOOK, McNutt, Paula, Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel, Westminster John Knox Press, 1999,books.google.com/books?id=hd28MdGNyTYC&pg=PA33, 978-0-664-22265-9, 14 August 2015, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701141503/https://books.google.com/books?id=hd28MdGNyTYC&pg=PA33, live,
• BOOK, SMR

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• BOOK, Moore, Megan Bishop, Kelle, Brad E., Biblical History and Israel’s Past, 2011, Eerdmans,books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaUC&q=%22difficulties+in+locating+the+egyptian+sojourn%2C+exodus%2C+and+wilderness+wanderings+chronologically%22&pg=PA81, 978-0-8028-6260-0

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• JOURNAL, Na’aman, Nadav, The Exodus Story: Between Historical Memory and Historiographical Composition, Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions, 11, 2011, 39–69, 10.1163/156921211X579579

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• BOOK, The Samaritans: A Profile, Pummer, Reinhard, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2016, 978-0-8028-6768-1,books.google.com/books?id=5RVACwAAQBAJ

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• BOOK, Redmount, Carol A., 2001, 1998, The Oxford History of the Biblical World, Bitter Lives: Israel in and out of Egypt,books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA58, Coogan, Michael D., Michael Coogan, Oxford and New York City, New York, Oxford University Press, 58–89, 978-0-19-513937-2, 26 June 2023, 3 April 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230403224918/https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA58, live,
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• BOOK, Tubb, Jonathan N., Canaanites, 1998, University of Oklahoma Press, 0-8061-3108-X,archive.org/details/canaanites00tubb, registration, 40,

Further reading

• BOOK, Albertz, Rainer, A History of Israelite Religion, Volume I: From the Beginnings to the End of the Monarchy, Westminster John Knox Press, 1994, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht 1992,books.google.com/books?id=yvZUWbTftSgC&q=History+of+Israelite+Religion,+Volume+1++Albertz&pg=RA1-PA145, 978-0-664-22719-7, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701140140/https://books.google.com/books?id=yvZUWbTftSgC&q=History+of+Israelite+Religion,+Volume+1++Albertz&pg=RA1-PA145, live,
• BOOK, Albertz, Rainer, A History of Israelite Religion, Volume II: From the Exile to the Maccabees, Westminster John Knox Press, 1994, Vanderhoek & Ruprecht 1992,books.google.com/books?id=exjyhvRy7YUC&q=Albertz+a+history+of+israelite+religion, 978-0-664-22720-3, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701140141/https://books.google.com/books?id=exjyhvRy7YUC&q=Albertz+a+history+of+israelite+religion, live,
• BOOK, Albertz, Rainer, Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E., Society of Biblical Literature, 2003a,books.google.com/books?id=Xx9YzJq2B9wC&q=Rainer+Albertz,+%22Israel+in+exile%22, 978-1-58983-055-4, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701140432/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xx9YzJq2B9wC&q=Rainer+Albertz,+%22Israel+in+exile%22, live,
• BOOK, Albertz, Rainer, Becking, Bob, Yahwism After the Exile: Perspectives on Israelite Religion in the Persian Era, Koninklijke Van Gorcum, 2003b,books.google.com/books?id=hwExATCqwvwC&q=Yahwism+after+the+exile:+perspectives+on+Israelite+religion+in+the+Persian+era, 978-90-232-3880-5, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701140446/https://books.google.com/books?id=hwExATCqwvwC&q=Yahwism+after+the+exile:+perspectives+on+Israelite+religion+in+the+Persian+era, live,
• BOOK, Amit, Yaira, etal, Essays on Ancient Israel in its Near Eastern Context: A Tribute to Nadav Na’aman, Eisenbrauns, 2006,books.google.com/books?id=Ku4OKVrEd4MC&q=Essays+on+Ancient+Israel+in+its+Near+Eastern+Context%3A+A+Tribute+to+Nadav+Na%27aman&pg=PA467, 978-1-57506-128-3, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701140433/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ku4OKVrEd4MC&q=Essays+on+Ancient+Israel+in+its+Near+Eastern+Context%3A+A+Tribute+to+Nadav+Na%27aman&pg=PA467, live,
• BOOK, Avery-Peck, Alan, etal, The Blackwell Companion to Judaism, Blackwell, 2003,books.google.com/books?id=asYoIwz9z2UC&q=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Judaism++By+Jacob+Neusner,+Alan+Avery-Peck&pg=PA230, 978-1-57718-059-3, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701140648/https://books.google.com/books?id=asYoIwz9z2UC&q=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Judaism++By+Jacob+Neusner,+Alan+Avery-Peck&pg=PA230, live,
• BOOK, Barstad, Hans M., Hans M. Barstad, History and the Hebrew Bible, Mohr Siebeck, 2008,books.google.com/books?id=zqJxkKy-cMMC, 978-3-16-149809-1,
• BOOK, Becking, Bob, Only One God? Monotheism in Ancient Israel and the Veneration of the Goddess Asherah, Sheffield Academic Press, 2001,books.google.com/books?id=z72KmReV-bIC, 978-1-84127-199-6, 14 August 2015, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701140648/https://books.google.com/books?id=z72KmReV-bIC, live,
• BOOK, Becking, Bob, Korpel, Marjo Christina Annette, The Crisis of Israelite Religion: Transformation of Religious Tradition in Exilic and Post-Exilic Times, Brill, 1999,books.google.com/books?id=lak_YWjCjDMC&q=The+crisis+of+Israelite+religion:+transformation+of+religious+tradition, 978-90-04-11496-8, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701140649/https://books.google.com/books?id=lak_YWjCjDMC&q=The+crisis+of+Israelite+religion:+transformation+of+religious+tradition, live,
• BOOK, Bedford, Peter Ross, Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah, Brill, 2001,books.google.com/books?id=MOd320e710IC&q=Osarsiph, 978-90-04-11509-5,
• BOOK, Ben-Sasson, H.H., A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, 0-674-39731-2,
• BOOK, Blenkinsopp, Joseph, Ezra-Nehemiah: A Commentary, Eerdmans, 1988,books.google.com/books?id=3PvirfZkfvQC, 978-0-664-22186-7, 14 August 2015, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701140649/https://books.google.com/books?id=3PvirfZkfvQC, live,
• BOOK, Blenkinsopp, Joseph, Bethel in the Neo-Babylonian Period, Blenkinsopp, Joseph, Lipschits, Oded, Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period, Eisenbrauns, 2003,books.google.com/books?id=R65fhpcUFcgC, 978-1-57506-073-6,
• BOOK, Blenkinsopp, Joseph, Judaism, the First Phase: The Place of Ezra and Nehemiah in the Origins of Judaism, Eerdmans, 2009,books.google.com/books?id=m1V1DeBS6P0C, 978-0-8028-6450-5, 14 August 2015, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701140649/https://books.google.com/books?id=m1V1DeBS6P0C, live,
• BOOK, Brett, Mark G., Ethnicity and the Bible, Brill, 2002,books.google.com/books?id=RfFRhC4FpZkC&pg=PA45, 978-0-391-04126-4,
• BOOK, Bright, John, A History of Israel, Westminster John Knox Press, 2000,books.google.com/books?id=0VG67yLs-LAC&q=Bright+History+of+Israel, 978-0-664-22068-6, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701140650/https://books.google.com/books?id=0VG67yLs-LAC&q=Bright+History+of+Israel, live,
• BOOK, Cahill, Jane M., Jerusalem at the Time of the United Monarchy, Vaughn, Andrew G., Killebrew, Ann E., Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period, Sheffield, 1992,books.google.com/books?id=yYS4VEu08h4C, 978-1-58983-066-0, 14 August 2015, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701140948/https://books.google.com/books?id=yYS4VEu08h4C, live,
• BOOK, Coogan, Michael D., The Oxford History of the Biblical World, Oxford University Press, 1998,books.google.com/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C&q=The+Oxford+History+of+the+Biblical+World, 978-0-19-513937-2, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701140956/https://books.google.com/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C&q=The+Oxford+History+of+the+Biblical+World, live,
• BOOK, Coogan, Michael D., A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament, Oxford University Press, 2009,books.google.com/books?id=2rxBAQAAIAAJ, 978-0-19-533272-8, 8 May 2023, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701141003/https://books.google.com/books?id=2rxBAQAAIAAJ, live,
• JOURNAL, Coote, Robert B., Whitelam, Keith W., 1986, The Emergence of Israel: Social Transformation and State Formation Following the Decline in Late Bronze Age Trade, Semeia, 37, 107–47,
• BOOK, Davies, Philip R., Philip R. Davies, In Search of ‘Ancient Israel’: A Study in Biblical Origins,books.google.com/books?id=95EzCgAAQBAJ, 2nd, Bloomsbury T&T Clark, New York, 2015, 978-0-56766-299-6, 8 May 2023, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701140933/https://books.google.com/books?id=95EzCgAAQBAJ, live,
• BOOK, Davies, Philip R., The Origin of Biblical Israel, Amit, Yaira, Ben Zvi, Ehud, Finkelstein, Israel, Lipschits, Oded, 1, Essays on Ancient Israel in its Near Eastern Context: A Tribute to Nadav Na’aman, Eisenbrauns, 2006,books.google.com/books?id=Ku4OKVrEd4MC&pg=PA467, 978-1-57506-128-3,
• BOOK, Day, John, Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan, Sheffield Academic Press, 2002,books.google.com/books?id=y-gfwlltlRwC, 978-0-8264-6830-7,
• BOOK, Dever, William G., 2012, The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: Where Archaeology and the Bible Intersect, Eerdmans,books.google.com/books?id=tcksD2_amqgC, 978-0-8028-6701-8, 28 May 2023, 3 April 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230403224917/https://books.google.com/books?id=tcksD2_amqgC, live,
• BOOK, Dever, William, Beyond the Texts: An Archaeological Portrait of Ancient Israel and Judah, SBL Press, 2017, 978-0-88414-217-1,books.google.com/books?id=mog6DwAAQBAJ, 8 May 2023, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701140935/https://books.google.com/books?id=mog6DwAAQBAJ, live,
• BOOK, Dunn, James D.G, Rogerson, John William, Eerdmans commentary on the Bible, Eerdmans, 2003, 978-0-8028-3711-0,books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&q=John+W.+Rogerson+Deuteronomy&pg=PA153, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701141233/https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&q=John+W.+Rogerson+Deuteronomy&pg=PA153, live,
• BOOK, Edelman, Diana, Ethnicity and Early Israel, Brett, Mark G., Ethnicity and the Bible, Brill, 2002,books.google.com/books?id=RfFRhC4FpZkC&pg=PA45, 978-0-391-04126-4,
• BOOK, Israel’s Ethnogenesis: Settlement, Interaction, Expansion and Resistance, Faust, Avraham, Routledge, 2016, 978-1-134-94208-4,books.google.com/books?id=hGneCwAAQBAJ, 28 May 2023, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701141233/https://books.google.com/books?id=hGneCwAAQBAJ, live,
• BOOK, Finkelstein, Neil Asher, Silberman, The Bible Unearthed, 2001, 978-0-7432-2338-6, Simon and Schuster,books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC, 14 August 2015, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701141233/https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC, live,
• BOOK, History of Ancient Israel, Frevel, Christian, SBL Press, 2023, 978-1-62837-514-5,books.google.com/books?id=Yvy6EAAAQBAJ, 27 April 2023, 1 May 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230501133544/https://books.google.com/books?id=Yvy6EAAAQBAJ, live,
• BOOK, Gnuse, Robert Karl, No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel, Sheffield Academic Press, 1997, 978-1-85075-657-6,books.google.com/books?id=0Kf1ZwDifdAC,
• BOOK, Golden, Jonathan Michael, Ancient Canaan and Israel: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2004a, 978-0-19-537985-3,books.google.com/books?id=EResmS5wOnkC,
• BOOK, Golden, Jonathan Michael, Ancient Canaan and Israel: New Perspectives, ABC-CLIO, 2004b, 978-1-57607-897-6,books.google.com/books?id=yTMzJAKowyEC&pg=PA62,
• BOOK, The Ancient Israelite World, Taylor & Francis, 2022, 978-1-000-77324-8,books.google.com/books?id=4beREAAAQBAJ, Keimer, Kyle H., Pierce, George A., 27 April 2023, 16 May 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230516053101/https://books.google.com/books?id=4beREAAAQBAJ, live,
• BOOK, The Oxford Handbook of the Historical Books of the Hebrew Bible, Oxford University Press, 2020, 978-0-19-026116-0,books.google.com/books?id=7y4DEAAAQBAJ, Kelle, Brad E., Strawn, Brent A., 31 March 2023, 13 May 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230513091548/https://books.google.com/books?id=7y4DEAAAQBAJ, live,
• BOOK, Killebrew, Ann E., Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E., Society of Biblical Literature, 2005,books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC&q=Biblical+peoples+and+ethnicity:+an+archaeological, 978-1-58983-097-4, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701141247/https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC&q=Biblical+peoples+and+ethnicity:+an+archaeological, live,
• BOOK, King, Philip J., Stager, Lawrence E., Life in Biblical Israel, Westminster John Knox Press, 2001, 0-664-22148-3,archive.org/details/lifeinbiblicalis0000king, registration,
• BOOK, Geschichte Israels und Judas im Altertum, Knauf, Ernst Axel, Walter de Gruyter, 2021, 978-3-11-041168-3, de,www.academia.edu/73668469, Niemann, Hermann Michael, 27 April 2023, 26 April 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230426212616/https://www.academia.edu/73668469, live,
• BOOK, Kuhrt, Amélie, The Ancient Near East c. 3000–330 C, Routledge, 1995,books.google.com/books?id=V_sfMzRPTgoC, 978-0-415-16763-5,
• BOOK, Lehman, Gunnar, The United Monarchy in the Countryside, Vaughn, Andrew G., Killebrew, Ann E., Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period, Sheffield, 1992,books.google.com/books?id=yYS4VEu08h4C, 978-1-58983-066-0, 14 August 2015, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701140948/https://books.google.com/books?id=yYS4VEu08h4C, live,
• BOOK, The Oxford History of the Holy Land, Lemaire, André, Oxford University Press, 2023, 978-0-19-288687-3,books.google.com/books?id=pyG3EAAAQBAJ, Hoyland, Robert G., Israel and Judah (c.931–587 BCE), André Lemaire, Williamson, H. G. M., 28 May 2023, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701141234/https://books.google.com/books?id=pyG3EAAAQBAJ, live,
• BOOK, Lemche, Niels Peter, The Israelites in History and Tradition, Westminster John Knox Press, 1998,books.google.com/books?id=JIoY7PagAOAC, 978-0-664-22727-2,
• BOOK, Levy, Thomas E., The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, Continuum International Publishing, 1998,books.google.com/books?id=-etsKv-4V2oC&q=The+archaeology+of+society+in+the+Holy+Land++Thomas+E.+Levy, 978-0-8264-6996-0, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701141458/https://books.google.com/books?id=-etsKv-4V2oC&q=The+archaeology+of+society+in+the+Holy+Land++Thomas+E.+Levy, live,
• BOOK, Lipschits, Oded, The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem, Eisenbrauns, 2005,books.google.com/books?id=78nRWgb-rp8C&q=Lipschitz,+Oded+fall+and+rise, 978-1-57506-095-8, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701141500/https://books.google.com/books?id=78nRWgb-rp8C&q=Lipschitz,+Oded+fall+and+rise, live,
• BOOK, Lipschits, Oded, David, Vanderhooft, Yehud Stamp Impressions in the Fourth Century B.C.E., Lipschits, Oded, Knoppers, Gary N., Albertz, Rainer, 1, Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century B.C.E., Eisenbrauns, 2006,books.google.com/books?id=6NsxZRnxE70C&pg=PA75, 978-1-57506-130-6,
• BOOK, Mazar, Amihay, The Divided Monarchy: Comments on Some Archaeological Issues, Schmidt, Brian B., The Quest for the Historical Israel, Society of Biblical Literature, 2007,books.google.com/books?id=jpbngoKHg8gC, 978-1-58983-277-0, 14 August 2015, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701141608/https://books.google.com/books?id=jpbngoKHg8gC, live,
• BOOK, Mays, James Luther, etal, Old Testament Interpretation, T&T Clarke, 1995,books.google.com/books?id=SNLN1nEEys0C, 978-0-567-29289-6,
• JOURNAL, Merrill, Eugene H., 1995, The Late Bronze/Early Iron Age Transition and the Emergence of Israel, Bibliotheca Sacra, 152, 606, 145–62,
• BOOK, Rediscovering Eve: Ancient Israelite Women in Context, Meyers, Carol, Oxford University Press, 2013, 978-0-19-991078-6,books.google.com/books?id=Aq1X6wNpxSQC, 28 May 2023, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701141520/https://books.google.com/books?id=Aq1X6wNpxSQC, live,
• BOOK, Middlemas, Jill Anne, The Troubles of Templeless Judah, Oxford University Press, 2005,books.google.com/books?id=Jrpx-op_-XkC, 978-0-19-928386-6,
• BOOK, Miller, James Maxwell, Hayes, John Haralson, A History of Ancient Israel and Judah, Westminster John Knox Press, 1986, 0-664-21262-X,books.google.com/books?id=uDijjc_D5P0C, 14 August 2015, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701141455/https://books.google.com/books?id=uDijjc_D5P0C, live,
• BOOK, Miller, Robert D., Chieftains of the Highland Clans: A History of Israel in the 12th and 11th Centuries B.C., Eerdmans, 2005,books.google.com/books?id=Gtm7NtK87poC&q=Chieftains+of+the+highland+clans, 978-0-8028-0988-9, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701142155/https://books.google.com/books?id=Gtm7NtK87poC&q=Chieftains+of+the+highland+clans, live,
• BOOK, The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Ancient Israel, John Wiley & Sons, 2016, 978-0-470-65677-8,books.google.com/books?id=-eMACgAAQBAJ, Niditch, Susan, 27 April 2023, 1 June 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230601224551/https://books.google.com/books?id=-eMACgAAQBAJ, live,
• BOOK, Niehr, Herbert, Religio-Historical Aspects of the Early Post-Exilic Period, Becking, Bob, Korpel, Marjo Christina Annette, The Crisis of Israelite Religion: Transformation of Religious Tradition in Exilic and Post-Exilic Times, Brill, 1999,books.google.com/books?id=lak_YWjCjDMC, 978-90-04-11496-8,
• BOOK, Nodet, Étienne, A Search for the Origins of Judaism: From Joshua to the Mishnah, Sheffield Academic Press, 1999, Editions du Cerf 1997,books.google.com/books?id=rE49wYHz5YUC, 978-1-85075-445-9, 14 August 2015, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701142225/https://books.google.com/books?id=rE49wYHz5YUC, live,
• JOURNAL, Pitkänen, Pekka, Ethnicity, Assimilation and the Israelite Settlement, Tyndale Bulletin, 55, 2004, 161–82,www.tyndalehouse.com/tynbul/library/TynBull_2004_55_2_01_Pitkanen_EthnicityIsraelSettlement.pdf, 2, 10.53751/001c.29171, 204222638,www.tyndalehouse.com/tynbul/library/TynBull_2004_55_2_01_Pitkanen_EthnicityIsraelSettlement.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20110717120935www.tyndalehouse.com/tynbul/library/TynBull_2004_55_2_01_Pitkanen_EthnicityIsraelSettlement.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20110717120935www.tyndalehouse.com/tynbul/library/TynBull_2004_55_2_01_Pitkanen_EthnicityIsraelSettlement.pdf, 17 July 2011,
• BOOK, Silberman, Neil Asher, Small, David B., The Archaeology of Israel: Constructing the Past, Interpreting the Present, Sheffield Academic Press, 1997,books.google.com/books?id=qX7r2lAQdFkC&q=hesse+wapnish&pg=PA238, 978-1-85075-650-7, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701142155/https://books.google.com/books?id=qX7r2lAQdFkC&q=hesse+wapnish&pg=PA238, live,
• BOOK, Smith, Mark S., Untold Stories: The Bible and Ugaritic Studies in the Twentieth Century, Hendrickson Publishers, 2001,
• BOOK, Smith, Mark S., The Early History of God, Eerdmans, 2002, Harper & Row 1990,books.google.com/books?id=1yM3AuBh4AsC&q=Smith+Early+History+of+God, 978-0-8028-3972-5, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701142159/https://books.google.com/books?id=1yM3AuBh4AsC&q=Smith+Early+History+of+God, live,
• BOOK, Soggin, Michael J., An Introduction to the History of Israel and Judah, Paideia, 1998,books.google.com/books?id=Dzw_H5GhkfYC&q=An+introduction+to+the+history+of+Israel+and+Judah++By+J.+Alberto+Soggin, 978-0-334-02788-1, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701142230/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dzw_H5GhkfYC&q=An+introduction+to+the+history+of+Israel+and+Judah++By+J.+Alberto+Soggin, live,
• BOOK, Stager, Lawrence E., Forging an Identity: The Emergence of Ancient Israel, Coogan, Michael D., The Oxford History of the Biblical World, Oxford University Press, 1998,books.google.com/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C, 978-0-19-513937-2, 14 August 2015, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701142202/https://books.google.com/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C, live,
• BOOK, Thompson, Thomas L., Early History of the Israelite People, Brill, 1992,archive.org/details/earlyhistoryofis00thom, registration, 978-90-04-09483-3,
• BOOK, An introduction to early Judaism, Vanderkam, James, Eerdmans, 2022, 978-1-4674-6405-5, 2nd,books.google.com/books?id=1cuAEAAAQBAJ, 27 April 2023, 25 March 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230325210637/https://books.google.com/books?id=1cuAEAAAQBAJ, live,
• BOOK, Van der Toorn, Karel, Family Religion in Babylonia, Syria, and Israel, Brill, 1996,books.google.com/books?id=VSJWkrXfbLQC&q=Family+religion+in+Babylonia,+Syria,+and+Israel, 978-90-04-10410-5, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701142204/https://books.google.com/books?id=VSJWkrXfbLQC&q=Family+religion+in+Babylonia,+Syria,+and+Israel, live,
• BOOK, Van der Toorn, Karel, Becking, Bob, Van der Horst, Pieter Willem, Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, Koninklijke Brill, 1999, 2d,books.google.com/books?id=yCkRz5pfxz0C&q=Dictionary+of+Deities, 978-90-04-11119-6, 1 November 2020, 1 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230701142705/https://books.google.com/books?id=yCkRz5pfxz0C&q=Dictionary+of+Deities, live,
• BOOK, Wylen, Stephen M., The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction, Paulist Press, 1996,archive.org/details/jewsintimeofjesu0000wyle, registration, 978-0-8091-3610-0,
• BOOK, Zevit, Ziony, Ziony Zevit, The Religions of Ancient Israel: A Synthesis of Parallactic Approaches, Continuum, 2001,books.google.com/books?id=db4hr55j0yYC&pg=PA1, 978-0-8264-6339-5, 27 April 2023, 27 April 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230427124936/https://books.google.com/books?id=db4hr55j0yYC&pg=PA1, live,

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