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{{Short description|Fear, hatred of, or prejudice against the religion of Islam or Muslims in general}}{{About|fear, hatred of, or prejudice towards Muslims or Islam|the historic persecution of Muslims|Persecution of Muslims|criticism directed at the Muslim faith|Criticism of Islam|prejudice against those from the Middle East|Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment}}{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}{{Globalize|date=April 2024}}{{Islamophobia}}{{Discrimination sidebar|expand-religious=yes}}Islamophobia is the fear of, hatred of, or prejudice against the religion of Islam or Muslims in general,WEB, 2023-11-16, The Devastating Mental Health Effects of Islamophobia,weblink 2024-03-15, TIME, en, WEB, Segal, Jody, LibGuides: Islam and Muslim Americans: Islamophobia,weblink 2024-03-15, libguides.greenriver.edu, en, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Islamophobia,weblinkweblink 11 November 2016, Oxford Dictionaries (website), Oxford Dictionaries, 10 November 2016, {{Dictionary.com|islamophobia|access-date=10 November 2016}}ENCYCLOPEDIA, Islamophobia,weblink Collins Dictionary, 10 November 2016, especially when seen as a geopolitical force or a source of terrorism.{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=166}}REPORT,weblink Europeans Fear Wave of Refugees Will Mean More Terrorism, Fewer Jobs, Wike, Richard, Stokes, Bruce, Simmons, Katie, July 2016, Pew Research Center, 4, 27 November 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20161127220309weblink">weblink 27 November 2016, The scope and precise definition of the term Islamophobia is the subject of debate. Some scholars consider it to be a form of xenophobia or racism, some consider Islamophobia and racism to be closely related or partially overlapping phenomena, while others dispute any relationship, primarily on the grounds that religion is not a race. For some critics, Islamophobia is an expression that, by confusing hatred of Muslims with criticism of Islam, equates racism against Muslims with criticism of religious beliefs and practices, which is legitimate in a secular democracy.WEB, 2019-10-11, Quatre questions sur l'emploi du terme "islamophobie", qui fait (une nouvelle fois) débat,weblink 2024-04-02, FranceInfo, fr-FR, WEB, Fourest, Caroline, Venner, Fiammetta, 2003-11-17, Ne pas confondre islamophobes et laïcs,weblink Libération, fr, The causes of increase in Islamophobia across the world since the 1990s are many. These include but are not limited to the September 11 attacks, the subsequent war on terror campaign,JOURNAL, Beydoun, Khaled A., April 2020, Exporting Islamophobia in the Global "War On Terror",weblink New York University Law Review, 95, 81–100, www.nyulawreview.org, BOOK, Hilal, Maha, Innocent Until Proven Muslim: Islamophobia, the War on Terror, and the Muslim Experience Since 9/11, Broadleaf Books, 2021, 978-1-5064-7046-7, Minneapolis, USA, WEB, Kiara Alfonseca, September 11, 2021, 20 years after 9/11, Islamophobia continues to haunt Muslims,weblink ABC News, en, the rise of the Islamic State during the Arab Winter,JOURNAL, Abbas, Tahir, 2021, Reflection: the "war on terror", Islamophobia and radicalisation twenty years on,weblink Critical Studies on Terrorism, Routledge, 14, 4, 402–404, 10.1080/17539153.2021.1980182, tandfonline, 1887/3618299, free, terrorist attacks carried out by Islamist militants in the United States and Europe, anti-Muslim rhetoric disseminated by white nationalist organizations through the internet,NEWS, Duncan Spence, November 2, 2014, Why online Islamophobia is difficult to stop, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation,weblink and the rise of far-right groups which oppose the presence of Muslims in the United States and the European Union.JOURNAL, Idil Oztig, Lacin, 2022, Islamophobic Discourse of European Right-Wing Parties,weblink Social Currents, Sage Publishing, 10, 3, 1–14, 10.1177/23294965221139852, Sage Journals, BOOK, Benkler, Faris, Roberts, Yochai, Robert, Hal, Network Propaganda: Manipulation, Disinformation, and Radicalization in American Politics, Oxford University Press, 2018, 9780190923624, 198 Madison Avenue, New York, Ny 10016, USA, 105–144, 4: Immigration and Islamophobia: Breitbart and the Trump Party, 2018020121, A study conducted in 2013 revealed that Muslim women, especially those wearing headscarves or face veils, are more vulnerable to suffer from Islamophobic attacks than Muslim men.WEB,weblink Muslim Women more likely to suffer Islamophobic attacks than men - study, Haroon, Siddique, 20 November 2013, www.theguardian.com, On 15 March 2022, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution by consensus which was introduced by Pakistan on behalf of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation that proclaimed March 15 as 'International Day to Combat Islamophobia'.NEWS, 'Landmark resolution': UNGA declares March 15 as International Day to Combat Islamophobia,weblink Dawn, March 15, 2022,

Terms

There are a number of other possible terms which are also used in order to refer to negative feelings and attitudes towards Islam and Muslims, such as anti-Muslimism, intolerance against Muslims, anti-Muslim prejudice, anti-Muslim bigotry, hatred of Muslims, anti-Islamism, Muslimophobia, demonisation of Islam, or demonisation of Muslims. In German, Islamophobie (fear) and Islamfeindlichkeit (hostility) are used. The Scandinavian term Muslimhat literally means "hatred of Muslims".BOOK, Kaya, Ayhan, Cesari, Jocelyne, The Oxford Handbook of European Islam, 2014, Oxford University Press, 978-0-19-960797-6, Islamophobia, When discrimination towards Muslims has placed an emphasis on their religious affiliation and adherence, it has been termed Muslimphobia, the alternative form of Muslimophobia,BOOK, Carpente, Markus, Diversity, Intercultural Encounters, and Education, 2013, 65, Islamophobism,BOOK, Pande, Rekha, Globalization, Technology Diffusion and Gender Disparity, 2012, 99, antimuslimness and antimuslimism.Racism and Human Rights. p. 8, Raphael Walden – 2004Muslims in Western Europe. p. 169, Jørgen S. Nielsen – 2004BOOK, Sedmak, Mateja, Walker, Sarah, Medarić, Zorana, 2014-05-09, Children's Voices: Studies of Interethnic Conflict and Violence in European Schools, Routledge, 124,weblink 978-1-134-49345-6, Individuals who discriminate against Muslims in general have been termed Islamophobes, Islamophobists,BOOK, Kuwara, Ibrahim, Islam Nigeria-UK Road Tour, 2004, 6, anti-Muslimists,2002, Fred halliday, Two hours that shook the world, p. 97 antimuslimists,BOOK, Kollontai, Pauline, Community Identity: Dynamics of Religion in Context, 2007, 254, A&C Black,weblink 9780567031570, islamophobiacs,BOOK, Seid, Amine, Islamic Terrorism and the Tangential Response of the West, 2011, 39, AuthorHouse,weblink 9781467885676, anti-Muhammadan,BOOK, Goknar, Erdag, Orhan Pamuk, Secularism and Blasphemy, 2013, 219, Muslimphobes or its alternative spelling of Muslimophobes,BOOK, Arasteh, Kamyar, The American Reichstag, 2004, 94, while individuals motivated by a specific anti-Muslim agenda or bigotry have been described as being anti-mosque,BOOK, Dressler, Markus, Secularism and Religion-Making,weblink limited, 2011, 250, anti-ShiitesBOOK, Kaim, Markus, Great Powers and Regional Orders, 2013, 157, (or Shiaphobes2013, Glen Perry, The International Relations of the Contemporary Middle East, p. 161), anti-SufismBOOK, Falola, Toyin, Toyin Falola, 1998, Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and Secular Ideologies, University of Rochester Press, 240,weblink 978-1-58046-052-1, Anti-Sufism itself is therefore a marker of identity, and the formation of the Izala proves this beyond any reasonable doubt., (or Sufi-phobia)Colonialism and Revolution in the Middle East, p. 197, Juan Ricardo Cole – 1999, "Ironically, the Sufi-phobia of the British consuls in the aftermath of 1857 led them to look in the wrong places for urban disturbances in the 1860s." and anti-Sunni (or Sunniphobes).2005, Ahmed Hashim, Insurgency and Counter-insurgency in Iraq, Cornell University Press (2006), {{ISBN|9780801444524}}

Etymology and definitions

The word Islamophobia is a neologismWEB, Roland Imhoff & Julia Recker, Differentiating Islamophobia: Introducing a new scale to measure Islamoprejudice and Secular Islam Critique,weblink Academia, 19 September 2013, formed from Islam and -phobia, a Greek suffix used in English to form "nouns with the sense 'fear {{nowrap| of – – '}}, 'aversion {{nowrap|to – – '."}}ENCYCLOPEDIA,weblink subscription, Oxford University Press, Oxford English Dictionary, -phobia, comb. form, Home : Oxford English Dictionary, According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word means "Intense dislike or fear of Islam, esp. as a political force; hostility or prejudice towards Muslims". It is attested in English as early as 1923ENCYCLOPEDIA,weblink subscription, Oxford University Press, Oxford English Dictionary, Islamophobia, Home : Oxford English Dictionary, to quote the French word islamophobie, found in a thesis published by Alain Quellien in 1910 to describe "a prejudice against Islam that is widespread among the peoples of Western and Christian civilization".WEB, Jean-Loïc Le Quellec, :fr:Jean-Loïc Le Quellec, 2019-06-19, Histoire et mythe conspirationniste du mot " islamophobie ",weblink 2019-08-31, Fragments sur les Temps Présents, fr-FR, The expression did not immediately turn into the vocabulary of the English-speaking world though, which preferred the expression "feelings inimical to Islam", until its re-appearance in an article by Georges Chahati Anawati in 1976."What makes the task difficult, perhaps impossible, for a non-Muslim is that he is compelled, under penalty of being accused of Islamophobia, to admire the Koran in its totality and to guard against implying the smallest criticism of the text's literary value" (Anawati 1976). The term did not exist in the Muslim world,{{Efn|Persian had the expression islām harāsī (اسلام هراسی), "hostility to Islam", similar to ‛adā' al-islām (عَداء الإسلام) in Arabic.|name=|group=lower-alpha}} and was later translated in the 1990s as ruhāb al-islām (رُهاب الإسلام) in Arabic, literally "phobia of Islam".The University of California at Berkeley's Islamophobia Research & Documentation Project suggested this working definition: "Islamophobia is a contrived fear or prejudice fomented by the existing Eurocentric and Orientalist global power structure. It is directed at a perceived or real Muslim threat through the maintenance and extension of existing disparities in economic, political, social and cultural relations, while rationalizing the necessity to deploy violence as a tool to achieve 'civilizational rehab' of the target communities (Muslim or otherwise). Islamophobia reintroduces and reaffirms a global racial structure through which resource distribution disparities are maintained and extended."WEB, Islamophobia Research & Documentation Project,weblink Defining "Islamophobia", Center for Race & Gender, University of California at Berkeley,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20170309201925weblink">weblink 9 March 2017, 15 May 2018,

Debate on the term and its limitations

In 1996, the Runnymede Trust established the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia (CBMI), chaired by Gordon Conway, the vice-chancellor of the University of Sussex. The Commission's report, Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All, was published in November 1997 by the Home Secretary, Jack Straw. In the Runnymede report, Islamophobia was defined as "an outlook or world-view involving an unfounded dread and dislike of Muslims, which results in practices of exclusion and discrimination."Encyclopedia of Race and Ethics, p. 215 The introduction of the term was justified by the report's assessment that "anti-Muslim prejudice has grown so considerably and so rapidly in recent years that a new item in the vocabulary is needed".JOURNAL, Meer, Nasar, Modood, Tariq, July 2009, Refutations of racism in the 'Muslim question', Patterns of Prejudice, 43, 3–4, 335–54, 10.1080/00313220903109250, 144359945, In 2008, a workshop on 'Thinking Thru Islamophobia' was held at the University of Leeds, organized by the Centre for Ethnicity and Racism Studies, the participants included S. Sayyid, Abdoolkarim Vakil, Liz Fekete, and Gabrielle Maranci among others. The symposium proposed a definition of Islamophobia which rejected the idea of Islamophobia as being the product of closed and open views of Islam and focused on Islamophobia as performative which problematized Muslim agency and identity. The symposium was an early attempt to bring insights from critical race theory, postcolonial and decolonial thought to bear on the question of Islamophobia.At a 2009 symposium on "Islamophobia and Religious Discrimination", Robin Richardson, a former director of the Runnymede TrustWEB,weblink Runnymede Trust – Ranimed, Runnymede and a Long Report, 18 March 2015, 25 February 2015,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20150225130831weblink">weblink dead, {{Failed verification|date=September 2021|reason=dead link}} and the editor of Islamophobia: a challenge for us all,WEB, 2010, MCB Brings Experts and Parliamentarians Together to Discuss Islamophobia,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20120306001003weblink">weblink 6 March 2012, Muslim Council of Britain, said that "the disadvantages of the term Islamophobia are significant" on seven different grounds, including that it implies it is merely a "severe mental illness" affecting "only a tiny minority of people"; that use of the term makes those to whom it is applied "defensive and defiant" and absolves the user of "the responsibility of trying to understand them" or trying to change their views; that it implies that hostility to Muslims is divorced from factors such as skin color, immigrant status, fear of fundamentalism, or political or economic conflicts; that it conflates prejudice against Muslims in one's own country with dislike of Muslims in countries with which the West is in conflict; that it fails to distinguish between people who are against all religion from people who dislike Islam specifically; and that the actual issue being described is hostility to Muslims, "an ethno-religious identity within European countries", rather than hostility to Islam. Nonetheless, he argued that the term is here to stay, and that it is important to define it precisely.Richardson, Robin (December 2009). WEB,weblink Islamophobia or anti-muslim racism â€“ or what?,  {{small|(119 KB)}}, Insted website. Accessed 30 December 2011.The exact definition of Islamophobia continues to be discussed, with academics such as Chris Allen saying that it lacks a clear definition.BOOK, Allen, Chris, Islamophobia,weblink limited, Ashgate, 2010, 978-0754651390, 21, Chris Allen (academic), JOURNAL, Bleich, Erik, December 2011, What Is Islamophobia and How Much Is There? Theorizing and Measuring an Emerging Comparative Concept, American Behavioral Scientist, 55, 12, 1581–1600, 10.1177/0002764211409387, 143679557, BOOK, Muslims in 21st Century Europe: Structural and Cultural Perspectives, Anna Triandafyllidou, 2010, Routledge, 978-0415497091, 28, Burak Erdenir, According to Erik Bleich, in his article "Defining and Researching Islamophobia", even when definitions are more specific, there is still significant variation in the precise formulations of Islamophobia. As with parallel concepts like homophobia or xenophobia, Islamophobia connotes a broader set of negative attitudes or emotions directed at individuals of groups because of perceived membership in a defined category.JOURNAL, Bleich, Erik, Defining and Researching Islamophobia, Review of Middle East Studies, 46, 2, 181, Mattias Gardell defines Islamophobia as "socially reproduced prejudices and aversion to Islam and Muslims, as well as actions and practices that attack, exclude or discriminate against persons on the basis that they are or perceived to be Muslim and be associated with Islam".File:IVÄŒRN 14-03-2015 2.JPG|thumb|Speaker at demonstration of initiative We don't want Islam in the Czech Republic on 14 March 2015 in ÄŒeské BudÄ›joviceÄŒeské BudÄ›jovice

Fear

As opposed to being a psychological or individualistic phobia, according to professors of religion Peter Gottschalk and Gabriel Greenberg, "Islamophobia" connotes a social anxiety about Islam and Muslims.WEB,weblink Faculty, Alumnus Discuss Concept of "Islamophobia" in Co-Authored Book, 29 December 2007, 20 November 2007, Corrina Balash Kerr, Wesleyan University Newsletter,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20080820031422weblink">weblink 20 August 2008, WEB, 19 November 2007, Images of Muslims: Discussing Islamophobia with Peter Gottschalk,weblink live,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20071206034654weblink">weblink 6 December 2007, 29 December 2007, Political Affairs Magazine, Some social scientists have adopted this definition and developed instruments to measure Islamophobia in form of fearful attitudes towards, and avoidance of, Muslims and Islam,JOURNAL, Lee, S. A., Gibbons, J. A., Thompson, J. M., Timani, H. S., 2009, The islamophobia scale: Instrument development and initial validation, International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 19, 2, 92–105, 10.1080/10508610802711137, 146757435, JOURNAL, Kunst, J. R., Sam, D. L., Ulleberg, P., 2012, Perceived islamophobia: Scale development and validation,weblink International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 37, 2, 225–37, 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2012.11.001, arguing that Islamophobia should "essentially be understood as an affective part of social stigma towards Islam and Muslims, namely fear".{{rp|page=2}}

Racism

{{See also|Cultural racism}}Several scholars consider Islamophobia to be a form of xenophobia or racism. A 2007 article in Journal of Sociology defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism and a continuation of anti-Asian, anti-Turkic and anti-Arab racism."The Multicultural State We're In: Muslims,'Multiculture' and the 'Civic Re‐balancing' of British Multiculturalism", Political Studies: 2009 Vol 57, 473–97WEB,weblinkweblink 2013-09-21, Remaking multiculturalism after 7/7, Centre for Research on the European Matrix, Tariq, Modood, 29 September 2005, The most important such form of cultural racism today is anti-Muslim racism, sometimes called Islamophobia., BOOK, The Islamophobia Industry: How the Right Manufactures Fear of Muslims, Nathan Lean, 978-0745332543, 2012, Pluto Press, Biological racist discourses have now been replaced by what is called the 'new racism' or 'cultural racist' discourses, JOURNAL, Poynting, S., Mason, V., 10.1177/1440783307073935, The resistible rise of Islamophobia: Anti-Muslim racism in the UK and Australia before 11 September 2001, Journal of Sociology, 43, 61–86, 2007, 145065236, In their books, Deepa Kumar and Junaid Rana have argued that formation of Islamophobic discourses has paralleled the development of other forms of racial bigotry.JOURNAL, Review: beyond "post 9/11" (Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire by Deepa Kumar; Terrifying Muslims: Race and Labor in the South Asian Diaspora by Junaid Rana), Erik Love, Contexts, 12, 1, 2013, 70–72, 41960426, Taking these two works together, Kumar and Rana put forth a strong argument that while Islam is certainly a religion, and not a race, and Muslims (like all religious communities) are a highly diverse group in terms of ethnicity, nationality, and even racial backgrounds, Islamophobia is in fact a form of racism. Both books effectively provide historical accounts showing the parallel development of Islamophobic discourses alongside other forms of racial bigotry and discrimination., Similarly, John Denham has drawn parallels between modern Islamophobia and the antisemitism of the 1930s,NEWS,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20110510093750weblink">weblink 10 May 2011, Fascism fears: John Denham speaks out over clashes, 12 September 2009, 18 March 2015, as have Maud OlofssonNEWS,weblink Reinfeldt: Kärnan i partiets idé, Dan Nilsson-dan.nilsson@svd.se, Svenska Dagbladet, 19 October 2009, 18 March 2015, and Jan Hjärpe, among others.JOURNAL,weblink A sociological comparison of anti-Semitism and anti-Muslim sentiment in Britain, Nasar, Meer, Tehseen, Noorani, The Sociological Review, 56, 2, 195–219, May 2008, Across Europe activists and certain academics are struggling to get across an understanding in their governments and their countries at large that anti-Muslim racism/Islamophobia is now one of the most pernicious forms of contemporary racism and that steps should be taken to combat it., 10.1111/j.1467-954X.2008.00784.x, 142754091, JOURNAL, Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia – new enemies, old patterns, Sabine, Schiffer, Constantin, Wagner, 1 January 2011, Race & Class, 52, 3, 77–84, SAGE Journals, 10.1177/0306396810389927, 146753309, Others have questioned the relationship between Islamophobia and racism. Jocelyne Cesari writes that "academics are still debating the legitimacy of the term and questioning how it differs from other terms such as racism, anti-Islamism, anti-Muslimness, and anti-Semitism."Jocelyne Cesari "Muslims In Western Europe After 9/11: Why the term Islamophobia is more a predicament than an explanation" Submission to the Changing Landscape of Citizenship and Security: 6th PCRD of European Commission. 1 June 2006: p. 6BOOK, Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century, John L. Esposito, 2011, Oxford University Press, 978-0199753642, 21,weblink Erdenir finds that "there is no consensus on the scope and content of the term and its relationship with concepts such as racism ..."BOOK, Muslims in 21st Century Europe: Structural and Cultural Perspectives, Anna Triandafyllidou, 2010, Routledge, 978-0415497091, 28, and Shryock, reviewing the use of the term across national boundaries, comes to the same conclusion.BOOK, Islamophobia/Islamophilia: Beyond the Politics of Enemy and Friend, Andrew Shryock, 2010, 6–25, Indiana University Press, 978-0253221995, Some scholars view Islamophobia and racism as partially overlapping phenomena. Diane Frost defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim feeling and violence based on "race" or religion.JOURNAL, Frost, D., Islamophobia: Examining causal links between the media and "race hate" from "below", 10.1108/01443330810915251, International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 28, 11/12, 564–78, 2008, Islamophobia may also target people who have Muslim names, or have a look that is associated with Muslims.Islamofobi – en studie av begreppet, ungdomars attityder och unga muslimers utsatthet {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119025153weblink |date=19 January 2012}}, published by {{ill|Forum för levande historia|sv}}The rise of anti-Muslim racism in Australia: who benefits?JOURNAL, Poynting, Mason, 2006, Tolerance, Freedom, Justice and Peace?: Britain, Australia and Anti-Muslim Racism since 11 September 2001, Journal of Intercultural Studies, 27, 4, 365–91, 10.1080/07256860600934973, 145787451, According to Alan Johnson, Islamophobia sometimes can be nothing more than xenophobia or racism "wrapped in religious terms".JOURNAL, The Idea of 'Islamophobia', Alan Johnson, 6 March 2011, World Affairs, Sociologists Yasmin Hussain and Paul Bagguley stated that racism and Islamophobia are "analytically distinct", but "empirically inter-related".JOURNAL, Hussain, Yasmin, Bagguley, Paul, amp, Securitized Citizens: Islamophobia, Racism and the 7/7 London Bombings, The Sociological Review, November 2012, 60, 4, 715–734, 10.1111/j.1467-954X.2012.02130.x, 143355490,weblink The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) defines Islamophobia as "the fear of or prejudiced viewpoint towards Islam, Muslims and matters pertaining to them", adding that whether "it takes the shape of daily forms of racism and discrimination or more violent forms, Islamophobia is a violation of human rights and a threat to social cohesion".WEB,weblink Islamofobi – definitioner och uttryck, Forum för levande historia, 18 March 2015,

Proposed alternatives

The concept of Islamophobia as formulated by Runnymede was also criticized by professor Fred Halliday. He writes that the target of hostility in the modern era is not Islam and its tenets as much as it is Muslims, suggesting that a more accurate term would be "Anti-Muslimism". He also states that strains and types of prejudice against Islam and Muslims vary across different nations and cultures, which is not recognized in the Runnymede analysis, as it was specifically about Muslims in Britain.BOOK, Aldridge, Alan, Religion in the Contemporary World: A Sociological Introduction, 1 February 2000, Polity Press, 978-0-7456-2083-1, 138,weblink Poole responds that many Islamophobic discourses attack what they perceive to be Islam's tenets, while Miles and Brown write that Islamophobia is usually based upon negative stereotypes about Islam which are then translated into attacks on Muslims. They also argue that "the existence of different 'Islamophobias' does not invalidate the concept of Islamophobia any more than the existence of different racisms invalidates the concept of racism."{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=166}}{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=165}}{{sfn|Poole|2003|p=219}}In a 2011 paper in American Behavioral Scientist, Erik Bleich stated "there is no widely accepted definition of Islamophobia that permits systematic comparative and causal analysis", and advances "indiscriminate negative attitudes or emotions directed at Islam or Muslims" as a possible solution to this issue.JOURNAL, Bleich, Erik, 2011, What Is Islamophobia and How Much Is There? Theorizing and Measuring an Emerging Comparative Concept, American Behavioral Scientist, 55, 12, 1581–1600, 10.1177/0002764211409387, 143679557, In order to differentiate between prejudiced views of Islam and secularly motivated criticism of Islam, Roland Imhoff and Julia Recker formulated the concept "Islamoprejudice", which they subsequently operationalised in an experiment. The experiment showed that their definition provided a tool for accurate differentiation.JOURNAL, Imhoff, Roland, Recker, Julia, 2012-08-17, Differentiating Islamophobia: Introducing a new scale to measure Islamoprejudice and Secular Islam Critique,weblink Political Psychology, International Society of Political Psychology, Wiley (publisher), Wiley, December 2012, 33, 6, 811–924, 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00911.x, Nevertheless, other researchers' experimental work indicates that, even when Westerners seem to make an effort to distinguish between criticizing (Muslim) ideas and values and respecting Muslims as persons, they still show prejudice and discrimination of Muslims—compared to non-Muslims—when these targets defend supposedly antiliberal causes.JOURNAL, 10.1111/pops.12416, Western Anti-Muslim Prejudice: Value Conflict or Discrimination of Persons Too?, Political Psychology, 39, 2, 281–301, 2018, Van Der Noll, Jolanda, Saroglou, Vassilis, Latour, David, Dolezal, Nathalie,

Origins and causes

History of the term

One early use cited as the term's first use is by the painter Alphonse Étienne Dinet and Algerian intellectual Sliman ben Ibrahim in their 1918 biography of Islam's prophet Muhammad.BOOK, La Vie de Mohammed, Prophète d'Allah, Dinet, Alphonse Étienne, ben Ibrahim, Sliman, 1918, Paris, cited from BOOK, Otterbeck, Jonas, Bevelander, Pieter, 2006, Islamofobi  – en studie av begreppet, ungdomars attityder och unga muslimars utsatthet, Forum för levande historia, Stockholm, sv, 978-91-976073-6-0,weblink 23 November 2011, modern orientalists [are partially] influenced by an islamofobia, which is poorly reconciled with science and hardly worthy of our time, Anders Lange,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20120119025153weblink">weblink 19 January 2012, Allen, Christopher (2010). Islamophobia. Ashgate Publishing. pp. 5–6. Writing in French, they used the term {{wiktfr|islamophobie}}. Robin Richardson writes that in the English version of the book the word was not translated as "Islamophobia" but rather as "feelings inimical to Islam". Dahou Ezzerhouni has cited several other uses in French as early as 1910, and from 1912 to 1918.Ezzerhouni, Dahou. "L'islamophobie, un racisme apparu avec les colonisations" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110417000408weblink |date=17 April 2011 }}, Algerie-Focus, 3 February 2010. "Le mot serai ainsi apparu pour la première fois dans quelques ouvrages du début du XXème siècle. On peut citer entre autre « La politique musulmane dans l'Afrique Occidentale Française » d'Alain Quellien publié en 1910, suivi de quelques citations dans la Revue du monde musulman en 1912 et 1918, la Revue du Mercure de France en 1912, « Haut-Sénégal-Niger » de Maurice Delafosse en 1912 et dans le Journal of Theological Studies en 1924. L'année suivante, Etienne Dinet et Slimane Ben Brahim, employaient ce terme qui «conduit à l'aberration » dans leur ouvrage « L'Orient vu par l'Occident »." These early uses of the term did not, according to Christopher Allen, have the same meaning as in contemporary usage, as they described a fear of Islam by liberal Muslims and Muslim feminists, rather than a fear or dislike/hatred of Muslims by non-Muslims.JOURNAL,weblink Islamophobia and its Consequences, Chris Allen, European Islam, 2007, 144–67, Chris Allen (academic), On the other hand, Fernando Bravo López argues that Dinet and ibn Sliman's use of the term was as a criticism of overly hostile attitudes to Islam by a Belgian orientalist, Henri Lammens, whose project they saw as a "'pseudo-scientific crusade in the hope of bringing Islam down once and for all.{{'"}} He also notes that an early definition of Islamophobia appears in the 1910 Ph.D. thesis of Alain Quellien, a French colonial bureaucrat:For some, the Muslim is the natural and irreconcilable enemy of the Christian and the European; Islam is the negation of civilization, and barbarism, bad faith and cruelty are the best one can expect from the Mohammedans.Furthermore, he notes that Quellien's work draws heavily on the work of the French colonial department's 1902–06 administrator, who published a work in 1906, which to a great extent mirrors John Esposito's The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality?.JOURNAL, Bravo López, F., Towards a definition of Islamophobia: Approximations of the early twentieth century, 10.1080/01419870.2010.528440, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 34, 4, 556–73, 2011, 217534342,weblink The first recorded use of the term in English, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, was in 1923 in an article in The Journal of Theological Studies. The term entered into common usage with the publication of the Runnymede Trust's report in 1997.BOOK, Otterbeck, Jonas, Bevelander, Pieter, 2006, Islamofobi  – en studie av begreppet, ungdomars attityder och unga muslimars utsatthet, Forum för levande historia, Stockholm, sv, 978-91-976073-6-0,weblink 23 November 2011, Anders Lange,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20120119025153weblink">weblink 19 January 2012, "Kofi Annan asserted at a 2004 conference entitled "Confronting Islamophobia" that the word Islamophobia had to be coined in order to "take account of increasingly widespread bigotry".Annan, Kofi. "Secretary-General, addressing headquarters seminar Wed Confronting Islamophobia", United Nations, press release, 7 December 2004.

Increase in Islamophobia during 1990s

During the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s, far-right Serbian Orthodox Christian militants who were heavily indoctrinated with Islamophobic sentiments, perpetrated a genocide against Bosniak Muslims. Since 1989, Serbian leader Slobodan Milošević publicly disseminated Islamophobic rhetoric throughout Yugoslavia, inciting Serbian far-right militants to massacre Bosniak Muslims.NEWS, Baboulias, Yiannis, 1 April 2019, The Balkans Are the World Capital of Islamophobia,weblink Foreign Policy, NEWS, Sabic-El-Rayess, Amra, 1 Oct 2020, Today’s America reminds me of 1990s Bosnia and Herzegovina,weblink Al Jazeera, BOOK, Najib, Kawtar, Spatialized Islamophobia, Routledge, 2022, 978-0-367-89478-8, 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158, USA, 32,

Contrasting views on Islam

The Runnymede report contrasted "open" and "closed" views of Islam, and stated that the following "closed" views are equated with Islamophobia:WEB,weblink Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All, 7 May 2014, 26 September 2007,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20070926002939weblink">weblink  {{small|(69.7 KB)}}, Runnymede Trust, 1997. These "closed" views are contrasted, in the report, with "open" views on Islam which, while founded on respect for Islam, permit legitimate disagreement, dialogue and critique.{{sfn|Benn|Jawad|2003|p=162}} According to Benn and Jawad, The Runnymede Trust notes that anti-Muslim discourse is increasingly seen as respectable, providing examples on how hostility towards Islam and Muslims is accepted as normal, even among those who may actively challenge other prevalent forms of discrimination.{{sfn|Benn|Jawad|2003|p=165}}

Identity politics

It has been suggested that Islamophobia is closely related to identity politics, and gives its adherents the perceived benefit of constructing their identity in opposition to a negative, essentialized image of Muslims. This occurs in the form of self-righteousness, assignment of blame and key identity markers.JOURNAL, Døving, Cora Alexa, 2010, Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia: A Comparison of Imposed Group Identities, Tidsskrift for Islamforskning, 4, 2, 52–76, 10.7146/tifo.v4i2.24596, free, Davina Bhandar writes that:JOURNAL, Bhandar, D., Cultural politics: Disciplining citizenship, 10.1080/13621021003731963, Citizenship Studies, 14, 3, 331–43, 2010, 146490574, {{Blockquote|text=[...] the term 'cultural' has become synonymous with the category of the ethnic or minority [...]. It views culture as an entity that is highly abstracted from the practices of daily life and therefore represents the illusion that there exists a spirit of the people. This formulation leads to the homogenisation of cultural identity and the ascription of particular values and proclivities onto minority cultural groups.}}She views this as an ontological trap that hinders the perception of culture as something "materially situated in the living practices of the everyday, situated in time-space and not based in abstract projections of what constitutes either a particular tradition or culture."In some societies, Islamophobia has materialized due to the portrayal of Islam and Muslims as the national "Other", where exclusion and discrimination occurs on the basis of their religion and civilization which differs with national tradition and identity. Examples include Pakistani and Algerian migrants in Britain and France respectively.{{sfn|Poole|2003|p=216}}{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=163}} This sentiment, according to Malcolm Brown and Robert Miles, significantly interacts with racism, although Islamophobia itself is not racism.{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=163}}{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=164}} Author Doug Saunders has drawn parallels between Islamophobia in the United States and its older discrimination and hate against Roman Catholics, saying that Catholicism was seen as backwards and imperial, while Catholic immigrants had poorer education and some were responsible for crime and terrorism.NEWS, Saunders, Doug, Doug Saunders, 2012-09-17, Opinion: Catholics Then, Muslims Now, en-US, The New York Times,weblink 2014-02-18, 0362-4331, {{sfn|Haddad|2002|p=19}}Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All, Runnymede Trust, 1997, p. 1, cited in BOOK, Quraishi, Muzammil, Muslims and crime: a comparative study, Ashgate Publishing, Aldershot, Hants, England, 2005, 978-0-7546-4233-6, 60, Brown and Miles write that another feature of Islamophobic discourse is to amalgamate nationality (e.g. Saudi), religion (Islam), and politics (terrorism, fundamentalism) â€“ while most other religions are not associated with terrorism, or even "ethnic or national distinctiveness".{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=163}} They feel that "many of the stereotypes and misinformation that contribute to the articulation of Islamophobia are rooted in a particular perception of Islam", such as the notion that Islam promotes terrorism â€“ especially prevalent after the September 11, 2001 attacks.{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=166}}The two-way stereotyping resulting from Islamophobia has in some instances resulted in mainstreaming of earlier controversial discourses, such as liberal attitudes towards gender equality and homosexuals.JOURNAL, Mepschen, P., Duyvendak, J. W., Tonkens, E. H., 10.1177/0038038510375740, Sexual Politics, Orientalism and Multicultural Citizenship in the Netherlands, Sociology, 44, 5, 962–79, 2010, 85645153, Christina Ho has warned against framing of such mainstreaming of gender equality in a colonial, paternal discourse, arguing that this may undermine minority women's ability to speak out about their concerns.JOURNAL, Ho, Christina, Muslim women's new defenders: Women's rights, nationalism and Islamophobia in contemporary Australia, Women's Studies International Forum, 30, 4, 290–98, 10.1016/j.wsif.2007.05.002, July–August 2007, 10453/3255,weblink free, Steven Salaita contends that, since 9/11, Arab Americans have evolved from what Nadine Naber described as an invisible group in the United States into a highly visible community that directly or indirectly has an effect on the United States' culture wars, foreign policy, presidential elections and legislative tradition.JOURNAL,weblink Beyond Orientalism and Islamophobia: 9/11, Anti-Arab Racism, and the Mythos of National Pride, Salaita, Steven, Fall 2006, CR: The New Centennial Review, 10.1353/ncr.2007.0011, 20 November 2015, 2, 6, 245–266, 143847106, The academics S. Sayyid and Abdoolkarim Vakil maintain that Islamophobia is a response to the emergence of a distinct Muslim public identity globally, the presence of Muslims in itself not being an indicator of the degree of Islamophobia in a society. Sayyid and Vakil maintain that there are societies where virtually no Muslims live but many institutionalized forms of Islamophobia still exist in them.BOOK, Sayyid, Salman, Salman Sayyid, Vakil, Abdoolkarim, 2010, Thinking Through Islamophobia: Global Perspectives,weblink New York, Columbia University Press, 319, 9780231702065,

Links to ideologies

File:CPA DSC05617 (14603953826).jpg|thumb|The 2014 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka followed rallies by Bodu Bala SenaBodu Bala Sena (File:Pastor Terry Jones Marching in DC (5497386725).jpg|thumb|An anti-Islam protest in the United States)Cora Alexa Døving, a senior scientist at the Norwegian Center for Studies of the Holocaust and Religious Minorities, argues that there are significant similarities between Islamophobic discourse and European pre-Nazi antisemitism. Among the concerns are imagined threats of minority growth and domination, threats to traditional institutions and customs, skepticism of integration, threats to secularism, fears of sexual crimes, fears of misogyny, fears based on historical cultural inferiority, hostility to modern Western Enlightenment values, etc.{{ill|Matti Bunzl|de}} has argued that there are important differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism. While antisemitism was a phenomenon closely connected to European nation-building processes, he sees Islamophobia as having the concern of European civilization as its focal point.BOOK, Anti-semitism and Islamophobia: hatreds old and new in Europe, Bunzl, Matti, 2007, Prickly Paradigm Press, Chicago, 978-0-9761475-8-9, 13,weblink 23 November 2011, Døving, on the other hand, maintains that, at least in Norway, the Islamophobic discourse has a clear national element. In a reply to Bunzl, French scholar of Jewish history, Esther Benbassa, agrees with him in that he draws a clear connection between modern hostile and essentializing sentiments towards Muslims and historical antisemitism. However, she argues against the use of the term Islamophobia, since, in her opinion, it attracts unwarranted attention to an underlying racist current.BOOK, Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia: Hatred Old and New in Europe, Xenophobia, Anti-Semitism, and Racism, Benbassa, Esther, 2007, Prickly Paradigm Press, Chicago, 978-0-9761475-8-9, 86ff,weblink 23 November 2011, Bunzl, Matti, The head of the Media Responsibility Institute in Erlangen, Sabine Schiffer, and researcher Constantin Wagner, who also define Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism, outline additional similarities and differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism.JOURNAL, Schiffer, S., Wagner, C., 10.1177/0306396810389927, Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia – new enemies, old patterns, Race & Class, 52, 3, 77–84, 2011, 146753309, They point out the existence of equivalent notions such as "Judaisation/Islamisation", and metaphors such as "a state within a state" are used in relation to both Jews and Muslims. In addition, both discourses make use of, among other rhetorical instruments, "religious imperatives" supposedly "proven" by religious sources, and conspiracy theories.The differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism consist of the nature of the perceived threats to the "Christian West". Muslims are perceived as "inferior" and as a visible "external threat", while on the other hand, Jews are perceived as "omnipotent" and as an invisible "internal threat". However, Schiffer and Wagner also note that there is a growing tendency to view Muslims as a privileged group that constitute an "internal threat" and that this convergence between the two discources makes "it more and more necessary to use findings from the study of anti-Semitism to analyse Islamophobia". Schiffer and Wagner conclude,{{Blockquote|The achievement in the study of anti-Semitism of examining Jewry and anti-Semitism separately must also be transferred to other racisms, such as Islamophobia. We do not need more information about Islam, but more information about the making of racist stereotypes in general.}}The publication Social Work and Minorities: European Perspectives describes Islamophobia as the new form of racism in Europe,{{sfn|Williams|Soydan|Johnson|1998|p=182}} arguing that "Islamophobia is as much a form of racism as anti-semitism, a term more commonly encountered in Europe as a sibling of racism, xenophobia and intolerance."{{sfn|Williams|Soydan|Johnson|1998|p=22}} Edward Said considers Islamophobia as it is evinced in Orientalism to be a trend in a more general antisemitic Western tradition.Edward W. Said, 'Orientalism Reconsidered' in Francis Barker, Peter Hulme, Margaret Iversen, Diana Loxley (eds), Literature, Politics, and Theory, Methuen & Co, London 1986 pp. 210229, pp. 220ff.Bryan Stanley Turner, introd. to Bryan S. Turner (ed.) Orientalism: Early Sources, (Vol 1, Readings in Orientalism), Routledge, London (2000) reprint 2002 p. 12 Others note that there has been a transition from anti-Asian and anti-Arab racism to anti-Muslim racism,The resistible rise of Islamophobia – Anti-Muslim racism in the UK and Australia before 11 September 2001, Journal of Sociology March 2007 vol. 43 no. 1 61–86 while some note a racialization of religion.Contemporary racism and Islamaphobia in Australia – Racializing religion, Ethnicities December 2007 vol. 7 no. 4 564–589According to a 2012 report by a UK anti-racism group, counter-jihadist outfits in Europe and North America are becoming more cohesive by forging alliances, with 190 groups now identified as promoting an Islamophobic agenda.NEWS,weblink Far-right anti-Muslim network on rise globally as Breivik trial opens, Mark Townsend, 14 April 2012, guardian.co.uk, 15 April 2012, London, In Islamophobia and its consequences on young people (p. 6) Ingrid Ramberg writes "Whether it takes the shape of daily forms of racism and discrimination or more violent forms, Islamophobia is a violation of human rights and a threat to social cohesion." Professor John Esposito of Georgetown University calls Islamophobia "the new anti-Semitism".NEWS,weblink Islamophobia: The new anti-Semitism, Toronto, The Star, In their 2018 American Muslim Poll, the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that when it came to their Islamophobia index (see Public Opinion), they found that those who scored higher on the index, (i.e. more islamophobic) were, "associated with 1) greater acceptance of targeting civilians, whether it is a military or individual/small group that is doling out the violence, 2) greater acquiescence to limiting both press freedoms and institutional checks following a hypothetical terror attack, and 3) greater support for the so-called "Muslim ban" and the surveillance of American mosques (or their outright building prohibition)."WEB,weblink American Muslim Poll 2018: Full Report {{!, ISPU|date=2018-04-30|website=Institute for Social Policy and Understanding|language=en-US|access-date=2018-12-05}}Mohamed Nimer compares Islamophobia with anti-Americanism. He argues that while both Islam and America can be subject to legitimate criticisms without detesting a people as a whole, bigotry against both are on the rise.BOOK, Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century, John L. Esposito, Mohamed Nimer, 2011, Oxford University Press, 978-0199753642, 76,weblink Gideon Rachman wrote in 2019 of a "clash of civilizations" between Muslim and non-Muslim nations, linking anti-Islam radicalisation outside the Muslim world to the rise of intolerant Islamism in some Muslim countries that used to be relatively free from that ideology.NEWS, Gideon Rachman, February 18, 2019, Islamophobia and the new clash of civilisations, Financial Times,weblinkweblink 2021-09-14,

Opposition to multiculturalism

According to Gabrielle Maranci, the increasing Islamophobia in the West is related to a rising repudiation of multiculturalism. Maranci concludes that "Islamophobia is a 'phobia' of multiculturalism and the transruptive effect that Islam can have in Europe and the West through transcultural processes."JOURNAL, Marranci, Gabriele, Multiculturalism, Islam and the clash of civilisations theory: rethinking Islamophobia, Culture and Religion, March 2004, 5, 1, 116ff, 10.1080/0143830042000200373, 55652492,

Manifestations

File:Christchurch mosque shootings memorial flower wall.jpg|thumb|Flower wall memorial erected after mass-shootings in March 2019 targeting Al-Noor Mosque and Linwood Islamic Centre in Christchurch City, New Zealand. The terrorist attack was motivated by far-right extremismfar-right extremism

Media

According to Elizabeth Poole in the Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies, the media have been criticized for perpetrating Islamophobia. She cites a case study examining a sample of articles in the British press from between 1994 and 2004, which concluded that Muslim viewpoints were underrepresented and that issues involving Muslims usually depicted them in a negative light. Such portrayals, according to Poole, include the depiction of Islam and Muslims as a threat to Western security and values.{{sfn|Poole|2003|p=217}} Benn and Jawad write that hostility towards Islam and Muslims are "closely linked to media portrayals of Islam as barbaric, irrational, primitive and sexist."{{sfn|Benn|Jawad|2003|p=165}} Egorova and Tudor cite European researchers in suggesting that expressions used in the media such as "Islamic terrorism", "Islamic bombs" and "violent Islam" have resulted in a negative perception of Islam.See Egorova; Tudor (2003) pp. 2–3, which cites the conclusions of Marquina and Rebolledo in: "A. Marquina, V. G. Rebolledo, 'The Dialogue between the European Union and the Islamic World' in Interreligious Dialogues: Christians, Jews, Muslims, Annals of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, v. 24, no. 10, Austria, 2000, pp. 166–68. " John E. Richardson's 2004 book (Mis)representing Islam: the racism and rhetoric of British broadsheet newspapers, criticized the British media for propagating negative stereotypes of Muslims and fueling anti-Muslim prejudice.BOOK, Richardson, John E., (Mis)representing Islam: the racism and rhetoric of British broadsheet newspapers, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2004, 978-90-272-2699-0,weblink In another study conducted by John E. Richardson, he found that 85% of mainstream newspaper articles treated Muslims as a homogeneous mass and portrayed them as a threat to British society.JOURNAL, Richardson, J. E., 2009, 'Get Shot of the Lot of Them': Election Reporting of Muslims in British Newspapers, Patterns of Prejudice, 43, 3–4, 355–77, 10.1080/00313220903109276, 145772695, The Universities of Georgia and Alabama in the United States conducted a study comparing media coverage of "terrorist attacks" committed by Islamist militants with those of non-Muslims in the United States.  Researchers found that "terrorist attacks" by Islamist militants receive 357% more media attention than attacks committed by non-Muslims or whites. Terrorist attacks committed by non-Muslims (or where the religion was unknown) received an average of 15 headlines, while those committed by Muslim extremists received 105 headlines. The study was based on an analysis of news reports covering terrorist attacks in the United States between 2005 and 2015.NEWS, Chalabi, Mona, July 20, 2018, Terror attacks by Muslims receive 357% more press attention, study finds, en-GB, The Guardian,weblink December 4, 2020, 0261-3077, WEB, Staff, February 19, 2019, Terror Attacks By Muslims Get 357 percent More Media Coverage Than Other Terror Attacks, Study Shows,weblink December 15, 2020, Georgia State News Hub, en-US, JOURNAL, Kearns, Erin M., Betus, Allison E., Lemieux, Anthony F., 2019-09-19, Why Do Some Terrorist Attacks Receive More Media Attention Than Others?, Justice Quarterly, 36, 6, 985–1022, 10.1080/07418825.2018.1524507, 220405703, 0741-8825, This was despite the fact that far-right extremists were responsible for almost double the number of terrorist acts in US attributed to Muslim individuals between 2008 and 2016. In spite of this disparity, US and UK governments have been negligent in confronting far-right terrorists, instead focusing almost all their counter-terrorism resources on imposing surveillance measures on Muslim population and censoring Muslim activists. Many right-wing politicians have also engaged in anti-Muslim rhetoric, indirectly motivating far-right groups to intensify violent hate crimes against Muslims.NEWS, Chalabi, Mona, 20 July 2018, Terror attacks by Muslims receive 357% more press attention, study finds, The Guardian,weblinkweblink 16 December 2018, NEWS, Neiwert, David, 22 June 2017, Far-right extremists have hatched far more terror plots than anyone else in recent years, Reveal News,weblinkweblink 24 July 2019, In 2009, Mehdi Hasan in the New Statesman criticized Western media for over-reporting a few Islamist terrorist incidents but under-reporting the much larger number of planned non-Islamist terrorist attacks carried out by "non-Irish white folks".WEB, Know your enemy, Mehdi Hasan, New Statesman, 9 July 2009,weblink 9 April 2010, A 2012 study indicates that Muslims across different European countries, such as France, Germany and the United Kingdom, experience the highest degree of Islamophobia in the media. Media personalities have been accused of Islamophobia. The obituary in The Guardian for the Italian journalist Oriana Fallaci described her as "notorious for her Islamaphobia" {{sic}}.Obituary of Oriana Fallaci – The Guardian, 16 September 2006. "Controversial Italian journalist famed for her interviews and war reports but notorious for her Islamaphobia" The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding published a report in 2018 where they stated, "In terms of print media coverage, Muslim-perceived perpetrators received twice the absolute quantity of media coverage as their non-Muslim counterparts in the cases of violent completed acts. For "foiled" plots, they received seven and half times the media coverage as their counterparts."WEB,weblink Equal Treatment? Measuring the Legal and Media Responses to Ideologically Motivated Violence in the US, The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, en-US, 2018-12-05, Nathan Lean used the term "Islamophobia industry" in the 2012 book The Islamophobia Industry: How the Right Manufactures Fear of Muslims to describe how certain ideologies and political proclivities have converged to advance the same agenda.BOOK, The Islamophobia Industry: How the Right Manufactures Fear of Muslims, Lean, Nathan, Pluto Press, 2012, 66, The "Islamophobia industry" has since been discussed by other scholars including Joseph Kaminski,JOURNAL, Kaminski, Joseph, The Islamophobia Industry, Hate, and Its Impact on Muslim Immigrants and OIC State Development, Islamophobia Studies Journal, 2014, 2, 2, 157–176, 10.13169/islastudj.2.2.0157, Hatem Bazian,JOURNAL, Bazian, Hatem, The Islamophobia Industry and the Demonization of Palestine: Implications for American Studies, American Quarterly, 21 December 2015, 67, 4, 1057–1066, 10.1353/aq.2015.0073, 146731799, 1080-6490, Arlene Stein, Zakia Salime, Reza Aslan,JOURNAL, Stein, Arlene, Salime, Zakia, Manufacturing Islamophobia: Rightwing Pseudo-Documentaries and the Paranoid Style, Journal of Communication Inquiry, 1 February 2015, 281, 4, 2015–1, 10.1177/0196859915569385, 145266067,weblink Erdoan A. Shipoli, and Deepa Kumar, the latter drawing a comparison between the "Islamophobia industry" and Cold War era McCarthyism.BOOK, Shipoli, Erdoan A., Islam, Securitization, and US Foreign Policy, 2018, Springer Science+Business Media, Springer, 9783319711119, 116,weblink Some media outlets are working explicitly against Islamophobia. In 2008 Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting ("FAIR") published a study "Smearcasting, How Islamophobes Spread Bigotry, Fear and Misinformation". The report cites several instances where mainstream or close to mainstream journalists, authors and academics have made analyses that essentialize negative traits as an inherent part of Muslims' moral makeup.WEB, Rendall, Steve, Making Islamophobia Mainstream: How Muslim-bashers broadcast their bigotry, 2008-11-01, Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting,weblink 2023-06-07, FAIR also established the "Forum Against Islamophobia and Racism", designed to monitor coverage in the media and establish dialogue with media organizations. Following the attacks of 11 September 2001, the Islamic Society of Britain's "Islam Awareness Week" and the "Best of British Islam Festival" were introduced to improve community relations and raise awareness about Islam.Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic studies, p. 218 In 2012, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation stated that they will launch a TV channel to counter Islamophobia.NEWS,weblink OIC will launch channel to counter Islamophobia, 19 April 2012, Arab News, 9 January 2013, Silva and Meaux et al both theorized that one of the main causes of negative interactions, stigma, and marginalization toward the Arabic community is due to the fact that many media framing from news outlets tend to associate Arab-Muslims with terrorism and jihadist-inspired motivations when it came to mass violence incidents. Silva noted in their research looking through New York Times articles about gun violence and noted that over the sixteen-year period of 2000 until 2016 this media framing would only increase through the time period.JOURNAL, Silva, Jason R., 2021-09-13, The news media's framing of mass shootings: gun access, mental illness, violent entertainment, and terrorism, Actual Problems of Economics and Law, 15, 2, 10.21202/1993-047x.15.2021.2.332-359, 225520354, 1993-047X, free, Silva compared his results to find out that Arabic perpetrators were significantly more like to be framed as terrorists than their White counterparts. Meaux et al note back to research conducted by Park et al that indicated that the most salient association that Americans held on to was Arab-Muslims to terrorism with the notion that people that believed in this association the strongest were more likely to hold implicit bias.JOURNAL, Meaux, Lauren T., Doran, Stephanie C., Cox, Jennifer M., 2020-11-26, Aberration of mind or soul: the role of media in perceptions of mass violence,weblink Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, en, 12, 4, 209–222, 10.1108/JACPR-07-2020-0526, 229434546, 1759-6599, JOURNAL, Park, Sung-Yeon, Holody, Kyle J., Zhang, Xiaoqun, September 2012, Race in Media Coverage of School Shootings: A Parallel Application of Framing Theory and Attribute Agenda Setting,weblink Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, en, 89, 3, 475–494, 10.1177/1077699012448873, 143792318, 1077-6990, File:Jews Say No to Genocide-Hollywood Protest for a Ceasefire in Gaza.jpg|thumb|Pro-Palestinian protest in Los Angeles against the war in Gaza and Hollywood's role in dehumanizing Muslims, November 2023]]

Movies

Throughout the twentieth century, Muslim characters were portrayed in Hollywood often negatively and with Orientalist stereotypes visualising them as being "uncivilised". Since the Post-9/11 era, in addition to these tropes, a securitization of Muslims; portraying them as a threat to the Western world, have drastically increased in movie depictions.JOURNAL, Senanayake, Harsha, 2021, Hollywood and Wicked Other: The Identity Formation of "Western Us" Versus "Muslim Others", Open Political Science, 4, 64–67, 10.1515/openps-2021-0007, 231920684, free, There are growing instances of Islamophobia in Hindi cinema, or Bollywood, in films such as Aamir (2008), New York (2009) and My Name is Khan (2010), which corresponds to a growing anti-minorities sentiment that followed the resurgence of the Hindu right.Gabriel, Karen, "The Country in the City: The Bye-lanes of Identity {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725135530weblink |date=25 July 2020 }}", South Asian Journal Special Issue Cinema in South Asia, July – September 2010 pp. 53–64.Gabriel, Karen and P. K. Vijayan, "Orientalism, Terrorism and Bombay Cinema", (2012) Journal of Postcolonial Writing Special Issue on Orientalism and Terrorism, July 2012 volume 48, number 3, pp. 299–310. {{doi|10.1080/17449855.2012.678744}}.(File:English Defence League protest in Newcastle.jpg|thumb|left|An English Defence League demonstration. The placard reads Shut down the mosque command and control centre.)

Organizations

{{See also|List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups#Anti-Muslim}}A report from the University of California Berkeley and the Council on American–Islamic Relations estimated that {{US$|206 million|long=no}} was funded to 33 groups whose primary purpose was "to promote prejudice against, or hatred of, Islam and Muslims" in the United States between 2008 and 2013, with a total of 74 groups contributing to Islamophobia in the United States during that period.NEWS, Funding fear of Muslims: $206m went to promoting 'hatred', report finds,weblink The Guardian, June 20, 2016, en, Stop Islamization of America (SIOA) and the Freedom Defense Initiative are designated as hate groups by the Anti-Defamation LeagueAnti-Defamation League, "Backgrounder: Stop Islamization of America (SIOA)" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502054200weblink |date=2 May 2012 }}, Extremism, 25 March 2011 [26 August 2010]. Retrieved 16 February 2012. and the Southern Poverty Law Center.NEWS, The Intelligence Report, Southern Poverty Law Center,weblink Summer 2011, 142, Robert, Steinback, Jihad Against Islam, WEB, Pamela Geller & Stop Islamization of America,weblink Southern Poverty Law Center, 27 June 2011, NEWS,weblink New York Daily News, 25 February 2011, Corky, Southern Poverty Law Center lists anti-Islamic NYC blogger Pamela Geller, followers a hate group, Siemaszko, In August 2012 SIOA generated media publicity by sponsoring billboards in New York City Subway stations claiming there had been 19,250 terrorist attacks by Muslims since 9/11 and stating "it's not Islamophobia, it's Islamorealism."*Anti-Islamic ad claiming "it's not Islamophobia, it's Islamorealism" goes up in NY train stations, Associated Press, 17 August 2012. Note that Bryan Fischer, Director of Issues Analysis for the American Family Association also used the phrase "Islamo-realism" in the column Times Square another argument for restricting Muslim immigration, 4 May 2010. It later ran advertisements reading "In any war between the civilized man and the savage, support the civilized man. Support Israel. Defeat Jihad." Several groups condemned the advertisements as "hate speech" about all Muslims.NEWS,weblink The New York Times, Pro-Muslim Subway Ads to Hang Near Anti-Jihad Ads, 4 Oct 2012, Ashwaq Masood, WEB, Jewish Council for Public Affairs, JCPA Condemns Bigoted, Divisive, and Unhelpful Anti-Muslim Ads,weblink JCPA, 21 September 2012, 28 September 2018,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20180928194920weblink">weblink dead, In early January 2013 the Freedom Defense Initiative put up advertisements next to 228 clocks in 39 New York subway stations showing the 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center with a quote attributed to the 151st verse of chapter 3 of the Quran: "Soon shall we cast terror into the hearts of the unbelievers."WEB,weblink The Quranic Arabic Corpus – Translation, corpus.quran.com, New anti-Muslim ads up in NYC subway stations, CBS News, 9 January 2013. The New York City Transit Authority, which said it would have to carry the advertisements on First Amendment grounds, insisted that 25% of the ad contain a Transit Authority disclaimer.NEWS, Epstein, Emily Anne, 2012-12-07, New Anti-Islam Ads to Debut This Month, Now With 25% More MTA Disclaimer, The New York Observer,weblink 2023-01-02, NEWS,weblink Controversial Group Plans More Ads in Subway Stations, 13 Dec 2012, New York Times, Matt Flegenheimer, These advertisements also were criticized.NEWS, Hussain, Murtaza, 2012-12-31, Opinion: Anti-Muslim violence spiralling out of control in America, Al Jazeera Arabic, Al-Jazeera,weblink 2023-01-02, WEB, Ali, Wajahat, 2012-12-31, Death by brown skin: An Indian immigrant's subway tragedy is a reminder of a destructive Islamophobia that has spread across the country,weblink 2023-01-02, Salon.com, The English Defence League (EDL), an organization in the United Kingdom, has been described as anti-Muslim. It was formed in 2009 to oppose what it considers to be a spread of Islamism, Sharia law and Islamic extremism in the UK.WEB,weblink Differentiating Islamophobia: Introducing a new scale to measure Islamoprejudice and Secular Islam Critique, Academia, Roland Imhoff, 18 March 2015, The EDL's former leader, Tommy Robinson, left the group in 2013 saying it had become too extreme and that street protests were ineffective.NEWS,weblink Tommy Robinson quits EDL saying it has become 'too extreme', Haroon Siddique, 8 October 2013, The Guardian, Furthermore, the 7 July 2005 London bombings and the resulting efforts of the British civil and law enforcement authorities to help seek British Muslims' help in identifying potential threats to create prevention is observed by Michael Lavalette as institutionalized Islamophobia. Lavalette alleges that there is a continuity between the former two British governments over prevention that aims to stop young Muslim people from being misled, misdirected and recruited by extremists who exploit grievances for their own "jihadist" endeavors. Asking and concentrating on Muslim communities and young Muslims to prevent future instances, by the authorities, is in itself Islamophobia as such since involvement of Muslim communities will highlight and endorse their compassion for Britain and negate the perceived threats from within their communities.BOOK, Race, Racism and Social Work: Contemporary issues and debates, Lavalette, Michael, Policy Press at the University of Bristol, 2014, England, 167–90, Institutionalised Islamophobia and the 'Prevent' agenda: 'winning hearts and minds' or welfare as surveillance and control?,

Public opinion

File:02015-10-02 Der anti-islamische Protest in Polen.JPG|thumb|Anti-Islam rally in PolandPolandThe extent of negative attitudes towards Muslims varies across different parts of Europe. Polls in GermanyNEWS, 2016-05-12, Almost two-thirds of Germans think Islam doesn't 'belong' to their country: poll, en, Reuters,weblink 2021-09-14, WEB, Elizabeth Schumacher, August 16, 2018, Germans tolerant of LGBT neighbors, but not Muslim ones,weblink Deutsche Welle, en-GB, and the Czech RepublicWEB, Jan Čulík, February 9, 2017, Why is the Czech Republic So Hostile to Muslims and Refugees?,weblink EuropeNow, en-US, University of Glasgow, (as well as South Korea)JOURNAL, Rich, Timothy S., Bison, Kaitlyn, Kozovic, Aleksandra, June 17, 2021, Who is welcome? South Korean public opinion on North Koreans and other refugees, Japanese Journal of Political Science, en, Cambridge University Press, 22, 3, 117–129, 10.1017/S1468109921000116, 1468-1099, free, have suggested that most respondents do not welcome Muslim refugees in those countries.A 2017 Chatham House poll of more than 10,000 people in 10 European countries had on average 55% agreeing that all further migration from Muslim-majority countries should be stopped, with 20% disagreeing and 25% offered no opinion. By country, majority opposition was found in Poland (71%), Austria (65%), Belgium (64%), Hungary (64%), France (61%), Greece (58%), Germany (53%), and Italy (51%).NEWS,weblink What Do Europeans Think About Muslim Immigration?, Chatham House, en, {{bar box|Are more prone to violence|18%|15%|12%|13%|23%|8%|13%|Discriminate against women|12%|23%|29%|30%|36%|18%|26%|Are hostile to the United States|12%|13%|9%|14%|23%|8%|12%|Are less civilized than other people|8%|6%|4%|6%|10%|1%|6%|Are partially responsible for acts of violence carried out by other Muslims|10%|16%|11%|12%|14%|8%|12%|Index (0 min- 100 max)|17|22|22|31|40|14|24

	WORK=PEW RESEARCH CENTER, 14 October 2019, |titlebar=#ddd|left1=Country|right1=Percent|width=400px|bars={{bar percent|Poland|peru|66}}{{bar percent|Czech Republic|peru|64}}{{bar percent|Hungary|peru|58}}{{bar percent|Greece|peru|57}}{{bar percent|Lithuania|peru|56}}{{bar percent|Italy|peru|55}}{{bar percent|Spain|darkorange|42}}{{bar percent|Sweden|orange|28}}{{bar percent|France|gold|22}}{{bar percent|Ukraine|gold|21}}{{bar percent|Russia|gold|19}}{{bar percent|United Kingdom|gold|18}}}}In Canada, surveys have suggested that 55% of respondents think the problem of Islamophobia is "overblown" by politicians and media, 42% think discrimination against Muslims is 'mainly their fault', and 47% support banning headscarves in public.WEB, Azeezah Kanji, November 30, 2020, Islamophobia in Canada – Submission to the UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief,weblink Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, In the United States, a 2011 YouGov poll found that 50% of respondents expressed an unfavorable view of Islam, compared to 23% expressing a favorable view.WEB, September 14, 2011, Islam Is Still A Disliked Religion To Many: 50% Are Unfavorable Towards It,weblink live,weblink 2021-06-29, YouGov, en-us, Another YouGov poll done in 2015 had 55% of respondents expressing an unfavorable view.WEB, Mona Chalabi, 2015-12-08, How anti-Muslim are Americans? Data points to extent of Islamophobia,weblink The Guardian, en, However, according to a 2018 Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 86% of American respondents said they wanted to "live in a country where no one is targeted for their religious identity", 83% told ISPU they supported "protecting the civil rights of American Muslims", 66% believed negative political rhetoric toward Muslims was harmful to U.S., and 65% agreed that Islamophobia produced discriminatory consequences for Muslims in America.The chart below displays collected data from the ISPU 2018 American Muslim Poll which surveyed six different faith populations in the United States. The statements featured in this chart were asked to participants who then responded on a scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The total percentage of those who answered agree and strongly agree are depicted as follows:Question 1: "I want to live in a country where no one is targeted for their religious identity."Question 2: "The negative things politicians say regarding Muslims is harmful to our country."Question 3: "Most Muslims living in the United States are no more responsible for violence carried out by a Muslim than anyone else."Question 4: "Most Muslims living in the United States are victims of discrimination because of their faith."The table below represents the Islamophobia Index, also from the 2018 ISPU poll. This data displays an index of Islamophobia among faith populations in the United States. {| class="wikitable"|+ISPU Islamophobia Index!Most Muslims living in the United States... (% Net agree shown)!Muslim!Jewish!Catholic!Protestant!White Evangelical!Non-Affiliated!General Public

Internalized Islamophobia

ISPU also highlighted a particular trend in relation to anti-Muslim sentiment in the U.S. – internalized Islamophobia among Muslim populations themselves. When asked if they felt most people want them to be ashamed of their faith identity, 30% of Muslims agreed (a higher percentage than any other faith group). When asked if they believed that their faith community was more prone to negative behavior than other faith communities, 30% of Muslims agreed, again, a higher percentage than other faith groups.

Trends

{{Excessive citations|date=September 2021|section}}Islamophobia has become a topic of increasing sociological and political importance.{{sfn|Miles|Brown|2003|p=163}} According to Benn and Jawad, Islamophobia has increased since Ayatollah Khomeini's 1989 fatwa inciting Muslims to attempt to murder Salman Rushdie, the author of The Satanic Verses, and since the 11 September attacks (in 2001).{{sfn|Benn|Jawad|2003|p=111}} Anthropologist Steven Vertovec writes that the purported growth in Islamophobia may be associated with increased Muslim presence in society and successes.Steven Vertovec, "Islamophobia and Muslim Recognition in Britain"{{sfn|Haddad|2002|pp=32-33}} He suggests a circular model, where increased hostility towards Islam and Muslims results in governmental countermeasures such as institutional guidelines and changes to legislation, which itself may fuel further Islamophobia due to increased accommodation for Muslims in public life. Vertovec concludes: "As the public sphere shifts to provide a more prominent place for Muslims, Islamophobic tendencies may amplify."{{sfn|Haddad|2002|pp=32-33}}(File:02015-10-02 Der anti-islamische Protest in Polen (2015) - KORWiN.JPG|thumb|left|An anti-Islamic protest in Poland)Patel, Humphries, and Naik (1998) claim that "Islamophobia has always been present in Western countries and cultures. In the last two decades, it has become accentuated, explicit and extreme."Naina Patel, Beth Humphries and Don Naik, "The 3 Rs in social work; Religion,'race' and racism in Europe"{{sfn|Williams|Soydan|Johnson|1998|pp=197-8}} However, Vertovec states that some have observed that Islamophobia has not necessarily escalated in the past decades, but that there has been increased public scrutiny of it.{{sfn|Haddad|2002|pp=32-33}} According to Abduljalil Sajid, one of the members of the Runnymede Trust's Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, "Islamophobias" have existed in varying strains throughout history, with each version possessing its own distinct features as well as similarities or adaptations from others.WEB, Islamophobia: A new word for an old fear,weblink Imam Abduljalil Sajid, 17 August 2007,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20070930121111weblink">weblink 30 September 2007, In 2005 Ziauddin Sardar, an Islamic scholar, wrote in the New Statesman that Islamophobia is a widespread European phenomenon."The next holocaust", New Statesman, 5 December 2005. He noted that each country has anti-Muslim political figures, citing Jean-Marie Le Pen in France; Pim Fortuyn in the Netherlands; and Philippe van der Sande of Vlaams Blok, a Flemish nationalist party in Belgium. Sardar argued that Europe is "post-colonial, but ambivalent". Minorities are regarded as acceptable as an underclass of menial workers, but if they want to be upwardly mobile anti-Muslim prejudice rises to the surface. Wolfram Richter, professor of economics at Technical University of Dortmund, told Sardar: "I am afraid we have not learned from our history. My main fear is that what we did to Jews we may now do to Muslims. The next holocaust would be against Muslims." Similar fears, as noted by Kenan Malik in his book From Fatwa to Jihad, had been previously expressed in the UK by Muslim philosopher Shabbir Akhtar in 1989, and Massoud Shadjareh, chair of the Islamic Human Rights Commission in 2000. In 2006 Salma Yaqoob, a Respect Party Councillor, claimed that Muslims in Britain were "subject to attacks reminiscent of the gathering storm of anti-Semitism in the first decades of the last century."Malik, Kenan. From Fatwa to Jihad. Atlantic Books, London (2009): pp. 131–32. Malik, a senior visiting fellow in the Department of Political, International and Policy Studies at the University of Surrey, has described these claims of a brewing holocaust as "hysterical to the point of delusion"; whereas Jews in Hitler's Germany were given the official designation of Untermenschen, and were subject to escalating legislation which diminished and ultimately removed their rights as citizens, Malik noted that in cases where "Muslims are singled out in Britain, it is often for privileged treatment" such as the 2005 legislation banning "incitement to religious hatred", the special funding Muslim organizations and bodies receive from local and national government, the special provisions made by workplaces, school and leisure centres for Muslims, and even suggestions by the Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams and the former Lord Chief Justice, Lord Phillips, that sharia law should be introduced into Britain. The fact is, wrote Malik, that such well-respected public figures as Akhtar, Shadjareh and Yaqoob need "a history lesson about the real Holocaust reveals how warped the Muslim grievance culture has become."Malik (2009): p. 132File:Ground Zero Mosque Protesters 11.jpg|thumb|A protester opposing the Park51Park51File:ARUNPATHAK5.JPG|thumb|Hindu nationalist politician Arun Pathak organised a celebration in Varanasi to commemorate the 1992 demolition of the Babri Masjid mosque.]]In 2006 ABC News reported that "public views of Islam are one casualty of the post-September 11, 2001 conflict: Nearly six in 10 Americans think the religion is prone to violent extremism, nearly half regard it unfavorably, and a remarkable one in four admits to prejudicial feelings against Muslims and Arabs alike." They also report that 27 percent of Americans admit feelings of prejudice against Muslims.NEWS, Cohen, Jon, 2006-03-08, Poll: Americans Skeptical of Islam and Arabs, ABC News,weblink 2023-01-02, Gallup polls in 2006 found that 40 percent of Americans admit to prejudice against Muslims, and 39 percent believe Muslims should carry special identification."Islamophobia Felt 5 Years after 9/11", Good Morning America, 9 September 2006. These trends have only worsened with the use of Islamophobia as a campaign tactic during the 2008 American presidential election (with several Republican politicians and pundits, including Donald Trump, asserting that Democratic candidate Barack Obama is secretly a Muslim), during the 2010 mid-term elections (during which a proposed Islamic community center was dubbed the "Ground Zero Mosque"BOOK, Corbett, Rosemary R., Making Moderate Islam: Sufism, Service, and the Ground Zero Mosque Controversy, 2016, Stanford University Press, 9781503600812, ), and the 2016 presidential election, during which Republican nominee Donald Trump proposed banning the entrance into the country of all Muslims. Associate Professor Deepa Kumar writes that "Islamophobia is about politics rather than religion per se"BOOK, Kumar, Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire, 2012, Haymarket Books, 978-1608462117, 6, and that modern-day demonization of Arabs and Muslims by US politicians and others is racist and Islamophobic, and employed in support of what she describes as an unjust war. About the public impact of this rhetoric, she says that "One of the consequences of the relentless attacks on Islam and Muslims by politicians and the media is that Islamophobic sentiment is on the rise." She also chides some "people on the left" for using the same "Islamophobic logic as the Bush regime".WEB, Kumar, Deepa, Deepa Kumar, 2006-04-03, Fighting Islamophobia: A Response to Critics,weblink 2023-01-02, In this regard, Kumar confirms the assertions of Stephen Sheehi, who "conceptualises Islamophobia as an ideological formation within the context of the American empire. Doing so "allows us to remove it from the hands of 'culture' or from the myth of a single creator or progenitor, whether it be a person, organisation or community." An ideological formation, in this telling, is a constellation of networks that produce, proliferate, benefit from, and traffic in Islamophobic discourses."WEB, InpaperMagazine, From, 2012-07-08, COVER STORY: Islamophobia: an ideological formation,weblink 2023-01-02, DAWN.COM, en, The writer and scholar on religion Reza Aslan has said that "Islamophobia has become so mainstream in this country that Americans have been trained to expect violence against Muslims â€“ not excuse it, but expect it".NEWS, Freedman, Samuel G., 2012-08-10, If the Sikh Temple Had Been a Mosque, en-US, The New York Times,weblink 2023-01-02, 0362-4331, A January 2010 British Social Attitudes Survey found that the British public "is far more likely to hold negative views of Muslims than of any other religious group," with "just one in four" feeling "positively about Islam", and a "majority of the country would be concerned if a mosque was built in their area, while only 15 per cent expressed similar qualms about the opening of a church."NEWS, Britain divided by Islam, survey finds, The Daily Telegraph, 11 January 2010,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20100114211350weblink">weblink 14 January 2010, 4 April 2010, London, A 2016 report by CAIR and University of California, Berkeley's Center for Race and Gender said that groups promoting islamophobia in the US had access to US$206 million between 2008 and 2013. The author of the report said that "The hate that these groups are funding and inciting is having real consequences like attacks on mosques all over the country and new laws discriminating against Muslims in America."WEB,weblink The Guardian: Funding Islamophobia: $206m went to promoting 'hatred' of American Muslims, Kazem, Halima, 20 June 2016, The Guardian, 24 June 2016, In the United States, religious discrimination against Muslims has become a significant issue of concern. In 2018, The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that out of the groups studied, Muslims are the most likely faith community to experience religious discrimination, the data having been that way since 2015. Despite 61% of Muslims reporting experiencing religious discrimination at some level and 62% reporting that most Americans held negative stereotypes about their community,  23% reported that their faith made them feel "out of place in the world". There are intersections with racial identity and gender identity, with 73% of Arabs surveyed being more likely to experience religious discrimination, and Muslim women (75%) and youth (75%) being the most likely to report experiencing racial discrimination. The study also found that, although, "most Muslims (86%) express pride in their faith identity, they are the most likely group studied to agree that others want them to feel shame for that identity (30% of Muslims vs. 12% of Jews, 16% of non-affiliated, and 4–6% of Christian groups)."A 2021 survey affiliated with Newcastle University found that 83% of Muslims in Scotland said they experienced Islamophobia such as verbal or physical attacks. 75% of them said Islamophobia is a regular or everyday issue in Scottish society and 78% believed it was getting worse.WEB, Douglas Barrie, June 29, 2021, Islamophobia in Scotland on the rise as four-fifths of Muslims report verbal and physical attacks,weblink live,weblink July 2, 2021, Microsoft News, Edinburgh Evening News,

Anti-Islamic hate crimes data in the United States

File:Ground Zero Marine Protest Muslim Bomb.jpg|thumb|A mannequin symbolizing a Muslim in a keffiyeh, strapped to a "Made in the USA" bomb display at a protest of Park51 in New York CityNew York City(File:Anti-Muslim protestors (26713859273) crop.jpg|thumb|A protest in Cincinnati, Ohio)File:Iranian Revolution anniversary 2017 21.jpg|thumb|Protests against Executive Order 13769 in Tehran, IranIranData on types of hate crimes have been collected by the U.S. FBI since 1992, to carry out the dictates of the 1990 Hate Crime Statistics Act. Hate crime offenses include crimes against persons (such as assaults) and against property (such as arson), and are classified by various race-based, religion-based, and other motivations.The data show that recorded anti-Islamic hate crimes in the United States jumped dramatically in 2001. Anti-Islamic hate crimes then subsided, but continued at a significantly higher pace than in pre-2001 years. The step up is in contrast to decreases in total hate crimes and to the decline in overall crime in the U.S. since the 1990s.Specifically, the FBI's annual hate crimes statistics reports from 1996 to 2013 document average numbers of anti-Islamic offenses at 31 per year before 2001, then a leap to 546 in 2001 (the year of 9-11 attacks), and averaging 159 per since. Among those offenses are anti-Islamic arson incidents which have a similar pattern: arson incidents averaged 0.4 per year pre-2001, jumped to 18 in 2001, and averaged 1.5 annually since.The FBI reports anti-Islamic hate crimes directed against persons or property its annual reports indexed here weblink. Data reported here are from the FBI Hate Crime reports of 2013, 2012, 2011, 2010, 2009, 2008, 2007, 2006, 2005, 2004, 2003, 2002, 2001, 2000, 1999, 1998, 1997, and 1996. Totals and averages reported here are derived as calculations from the FBI data.Year-by-year anti-Islamic hate crimes, all hate crimes, and arson subtotals are as follows:{| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"Anti-Islamic hate crimesAll hate crimes style="background:#f0f0f0;"|Total offenses|10,706|9,861|9,235|9,301|9,430 style="background:Gainsboro;"|11,451|8,832|8,715|9,035|8,380|9,080|9,006|9,168|7,789|7,699|7,254|6,718|6,933| style="background:#f0f0f0;"|158,593 style="background:Gainsboro;"|8810.7 style="background:#f0f0f0;"| style="background:#f0f0f0;"|9,707 style="background:#f0f0f0;"|11,451 style="background:#f0f0f0;"|8,217In contrast, the overall numbers of arson and total offenses declined from pre-2001 to post-2001.

Anti-Islamic hate crimes in the European countries

There have also been reports of hate crimes targeting Muslims across Europe. These incidents have increased after terrorist attacks by extremist groups such as ISIL.NEWS,weblink Anti-Islam hate crimes triple in London after Paris attacks, BBC News, 4 December 2015, Far-right and right-wing populist political parties and organizations have also been accused of fueling fear and hatred towards Muslims.NEWS,weblink Anti-Islam movement PEGIDA stages protests across Europe, 6 February 2017, Reuters, NEWS,weblink Marine Le Pen's Anti-Islam Message Gains Influence in France, Adam, Nossiter, The New York Times, 17 November 2015, NEWS,weblink Germany's AfD Adopts Anti-Islam Stance at Party Conference, Ruth, Bender, Wall Street Journal, 1 May 2016, www.wsj.com, WEB,weblink Poland's populist government let far-right extremism explode into mainstream, Tim, Hume, 9 May 2017, news.vice.com, Hate crimes such as arson and physical violence have been attempted or have occurred in Norway,WEB,weblink Woman attempted to set fire to Oslo mosque, 20 May 2016, Poland,WEB,weblink Why are Polish people so wrong about Muslims in their country?, 13 January 2017, openDemocracy, 10 May 2017, 26 April 2017,weblink WEB,weblink European Islamophobia Report, 2015, SETA, Sweden,NEWS,weblink Sweden protest after three mosque fires in one week, BBC News, 2 January 2015, France,NEWS,weblinkweblink 11 January 2022, subscription, live, Fears of anti-Muslim backlash as police investigate possible arson attack on French mosque, David, Chazan, Lexi, Finnigan, The Telegraph, 27 July 2016, www.telegraph.co.uk, {{cbignore}} Spain,WEB,weblink Spanish hooligans held for assault on hijab-wearing pregnant Muslim woman, 8 September 2016, Denmark,NEWS,weblink Muslim School in Denmark Vandalised with Anti-Islam Graffiti, The Copenhagen Post, 27 November 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20190904233005weblink">weblink 4 September 2019, GermanyNEWS,weblink Bremen: Nach Messerangriff in Straßenbahn nimmt Polizei Mann fest, Die Welt, 5 June 2019, www.welt.de, and Great Britain.WEB,weblink Anschlag mit Lieferwagen auf Londoner Muslime, 19 June 2017, www.merkur.de, Politicians have also made anti-Muslim comments when discussing the European migrant crisis.WEB,weblink Hungarian PM: We don't want more Muslims, www.aljazeera.com, WEB,weblink Slovakia's leader said Islam has 'no place' in his country. Now he's taking a leadership role in the E.U., Ishaan, Tharoor, www.washingtonpost.com, NEWS,weblink 'Poles don't want immigrants. They don't understand them, don't like them', Adam Leszczyński of Gazeta, Wyborcza, The Guardian, 2 July 2015, www.theguardian.com, According to MDPI: The Islamophobia Industry in America is another related-issue; it mentions: "The industry is driven by neocon stars: Daniel Pipes, Robert Spencer, David Yerushalmi, Glenn Beck, Pamela Gellner, Paul Wolfowitz, David Horowitz, and Frank Gaffney as well as native informers Walid Shoebat, Walid Phares, Wafa Sultan, Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Ibn Warraq, Brigitte Gabriel, Tawfik Hamid, and Zuhdi Jasser. They have been prolific, producing and re-circulating false or exaggerated information about Islam and Muslims in order to gain lucrative speaking engagements and increase their influence among neocons in government."JOURNAL, Haddad, Yvonne, Yvonne Haddad, Harb, Nazir Nader, June 2014, Post-9/11: Making Islam an American Religion, Religions, MDPI, 5, 2, 477–501, 10.3390/rel5020477, 2077-1444, free,

Reports by governmental organizations

{{See also|Hijabophobia}}File:Prejudice against Roma, Trans and Muslim people (EU, 2015).svg|thumb|upright=2|According to a survey conducted by the European Commission in 2015 13% of the respondents would be completely uncomfortable about working with a Muslim person ({{legend-inline|#fdbf6f|orange}}), compared with 17% with a transgender or transsexual person ({{legend-inline|#b2df8a|green}}) and 20% with a RomaRomaThe largest project monitoring Islamophobia was undertaken following 9/11 by the EU watchdog, European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC). Their May 2002 report "Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001", written by Chris Allen and Jorgen S. Nielsen of the University of Birmingham, was based on 75 reports  – 15 from each EU member nation.NEWS, EUMC presents reports on Discrimination and Islamophobia in the EU, European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia media release,weblink 18 December 2006,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20080131230905weblink">weblink 31 January 2008, Allen, Chris and Nielsen, Jorgen S. "Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071112213546weblink |date=12 November 2007 }}, EUMC, May 2002. The report highlighted the regularity with which ordinary Muslims became targets for abusive and sometimes violent retaliatory attacks after 9/11. Despite localized differences within each member nation, the recurrence of attacks on recognizable and visible traits of Islam and Muslims was the report's most significant finding. Incidents consisted of verbal abuse, blaming all Muslims for terrorism, forcibly removing women's hijabs, spitting on Muslims, calling children "Osama", and random assaults. A number of Muslims were hospitalized and in one instance paralyzed. The report also discussed the portrayal of Muslims in the media. Inherent negativity, stereotypical images, fantastical representations, and exaggerated caricatures were all identified. The report concluded that "a greater receptivity towards anti-Muslim and other xenophobic ideas and sentiments has, and may well continue, to become more tolerated."The EUMC has since released a number of publications related to Islamophobia, including The Fight against Antisemitism and Islamophobia: Bringing Communities together (European Round Tables Meetings) (2003) and Muslims in the European Union: Discrimination and Islamophobia (2006).EUMC website â€“ Publications {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223010504weblink |date=23 December 2007 }}. Retrieved 17 November 2007.Professor in History of Religion, Anne Sophie Roald, states that Islamophobia was recognized as a form of intolerance alongside xenophobia and antisemitism at the "Stockholm International Forum on Combating Intolerance",BOOK, Anne Sophie, Roald, New Muslims in the European Context: The Experience of Scandinavian Converts,weblink limited, 53, Brill, 2004, 978-90-04-13679-3, held in January 2001.WEB,weblink Fasena.de, The conference, attended by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, High Commissioner for Human Rights Mary Robinson, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Secretary General Ján Kubis and representatives of the European Union and Council of Europe, adopted a declaration to combat "genocide, ethnic cleansing, racism, antisemitism, Islamophobia and xenophobia, and to combat all forms of racial discrimination and intolerance related to it."WEB,weblink Chancellery of the Government of Sweden, Conference Two: Combating Intolerance, 19 November 2011,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20100923211418weblink">weblink 23 September 2010, The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, in its 5th report to Islamophobia Observatory of 2012, found an "institutionalization and legitimization of the phenomenon of Islamophobia" in the West over the previous five years.NEWS, OIC warns of exploiting Islamophobia phenomenon,weblink 18 October 2013, Arab News, 13 November 2012, In 2014 Integrationsverket (the Swedish National Integration Board) defined Islamophobia as "racism and discrimination expressed towards Muslims."WEB, Ehle, David, 2014-02-23, Terminologi – islamofobi,weblink 2023-01-02, Motargument, sv-SE, rasistiska och diskriminerande uttryck gentemot muslimer, In 2016, the European Islamophobia Report (EIR) presented the "European Islamophobia Report 2015"JOURNAL, Reports – European Islamophobia, European Islamophobia Reports EIR, 3 May 2016, 2015,weblink 18 May 2016, en, .html/.pdf, JOURNAL, EIR_2015.pdf, European Islamophobia Reports EIR, 3 May 2016, 2015,weblink 18 May 2016, en, at European Parliament which analyzes the "trends in the spread of Islamophobia" in 25 European states in 2015. The EIR defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism. While not every criticism of Muslims or Islam is necessarily Islamophobic, anti-Muslim sentiments expressed through the dominant group scapegoating and excluding Muslims for the sake of power is.WEB, Definition – About European Islamophobia Report (EIR),weblink ©2016 European Islamophobia, European Parliament, 12 May 2016, en, .html, 3 May 2016, When talking about Islamophobia, we mean anti-Muslim racism. As Anti-Semitism Studies has shown, the etymological components of a word do not necessarily point to its complete meaning, nor how it is used. Such is also the case with Islamophobia Studies. Islamophobia has become a well known term used in academia as much as in the public sphere. Criticism of Muslims or of the Islamic religion is not necessarily Islamophobic. Islamophobia is about a dominant group of people aiming at seizing, stabilizing and widening their power by means of defining a scapegoat – real or invented – and excluding this scapegoat from the resources/rights/definition of a constructed 'we'. Islamophobia operates by constructing a static 'Muslim' identity, which is attributed in negative terms and generalized for all Muslims. At the same time, Islamophobic images are fluid and vary in different contexts, because Islamophobia tells us more about the Islamophobe than it tells us about the Muslims/Islam.,

Research on Islamophobia and its correlates

File:Estimated Muslim population Vs Negative attitudes towards Muslims.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|According to data by the Pew Research CenterPew Research CenterVarious studies have been conducted to investigate Islamophobia and its correlates among majority populations and among Muslim minorities themselves. To start with, an experimental study showed that anti-Muslim attitudes may be stronger than more general xenophobic attitudes.JOURNAL, Spruyt, B., Elchardus, M., 2012, Are anti-Muslim feelings more widespread than anti-foreigner feelings? Evidence from two split-sample experiments, 10.1177/1468796812449707, Ethnicities, 12, 6, 800–20, 145497111,weblink Moreover, studies indicate that anti-Muslim prejudice among majority populations is primarily explained by the perception of Muslims as a cultural threat, rather than as a threat towards the respective nation's economy.JOURNAL, González, K. V., Verkuyten, M., Weesie, J., Poppe, E., 2008, Prejudice Towards Muslims in The Netherlands: Testing Integrated Threat Theory, 10.1348/014466608x284443, The British Journal of Social Psychology, 47, 4, 667–85, 18284782,weblink 11370/1faf663e-15b0-4391-aac2-b3a56b417887, 39911409, free, JOURNAL, Savelkoul, M., Scheepers, P., Tolsma, J., Hagendoorn, L., 2010, Anti-Muslim attitudes in the Netherlands: Tests of contradictory hypotheses derived from ethnic competition theory and intergroup contact theory, 10.1093/esr/jcq035, European Sociological Review, 27, 6, 741–58, 2066/99505, free, JOURNAL, Schlueter, E., Scheepers, P., 2010, The relationship between outgroup size and anti-outgroup attitudes: A theoretical synthesis and empirical test of group threat- and intergroup contact theory, 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2009.07.006, Social Science Research, 39, 2, 285–95,weblink 11370/a16d7bfe-0b28-4542-b8b1-2db75a3714e9, 131765316, free, Studies focusing on the experience of Islamophobia among Muslims have shown that the experience of religious discrimination is associated with lower national identification and higher religious identification.JOURNAL, Kunst, J. R., Tajamal, H., Sam, D. L., Ulleberg, P., 2012, Coping with Islamophobia: The effects of religious stigma on Muslim minorities' identity formation, 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.12.014, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36, 4, 518–32,weblink JOURNAL, Verkuyten, M., Yildiz, A. A., 2007, National (dis)identification and ethnic and religious identity: A study among Turkish-Dutch Muslims, 10.1177/0146167207304276, 17933739, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 10, 1448–62, 24997994,weblink 11370/7a25d4ce-7574-47ac-aac9-ebed396dc934, free, In other words, religious discrimination seems to lead Muslims to increase their identification with their religion and to decrease their identification with their nation of residence. Some studies further indicate that societal Islamophobia negatively influences Muslim minorities' health.JOURNAL, Johnston, D., Lordan, G., 2011, Discrimination makes me sick! An examination of the discrimination–health relationship, 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2011.12.002, 22366167, Journal of Health Economics, 31, 1, 99–111, One of the studies showed that the perception of an Islamophobic society is associated with more psychological problems, such as depression and nervousness, regardless whether the respective individual had personally experienced religious discrimination. As the authors of the study suggest, anti-discrimination laws may therefore be insufficient to fully protect Muslim minorities from an environment which is hostile towards their religious group.Farid Hafez and Enes Bayrakli publish an annual European Islamophobia Report since 2015.WEB,weblink European Islamophobia, The European Islamophobie Report aims to enable policymakers as well as the public to discuss the issue of Islamophobia with the help of qualitative data. It is the first report to cover a wide range of Eastern European countries like Serbia, Croatia, Hungary, Lithuania, and Latvia. Farid Hafez is also editor of the German-English Islamophobia Studies Yearbook.WEB,weblink Jahrbuch für Islamophobieforschung, Farid, Hafez, Islamophobieforschung, 28 July 2023, 18 May 2022,weblink dead,

Regional trends

Anti-Muslim sentiment in Europe

{{see also|Eurabia conspiracy theory}}Muslim immigration into Europe has led some critics to label Islam incompatible with secular Western society.BOOK, Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach,weblink limited, Tariq Modood, Routledge, 1st, 6 April 2006, 978-0-415-35515-5, 3, 29, 46, BOOK, Kilpatrick, William, The Politically Incorrect Guide to Jihad, Regnery, 2016, 256, 978-1621575771, This criticism has been partly influenced by a stance against multiculturalism advocated by recent philosophers, closely linked to the heritage of New Philosophers, including the likes of Pascal Bruckner.Pascal Bruckner – Enlightenment fundamentalism or racism of the anti-racists? appeared originally in German in the online magazine Perlentaucher on 24 January 2007.Pascal Bruckner – A reply to Ian Buruma and Timothy Garton Ash: "At the heart of the issue is the fact that in certain countries Islam is becoming Europe's second religion. As such, its adherents are entitled to freedom of religion, to decent locations and to all of our respect. On the condition, that is, that they themselves respect the rules of our republican, secular culture, and that they do not demand a status of extraterritoriality that is denied other religions, or claim special rights and prerogatives"Pascal Bruckner – A reply to Ian Buruma and Timothy Garton Ash "It's so true that many English, Dutch and German politicians, shocked by the excesses that the wearing of the Islamic veil has given way to, now envisage similar legislation curbing religious symbols in public space. The separation of the spiritual and corporeal domains must be strictly maintained, and belief must confine itself to the private realm."NEWS, Extremism flourished as UK lost Christianity, Michael Nazir-Ali, Michael, Nazir-Ali,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20080110080819weblink">weblink dead, 10 January 2008, The Sunday Telegraph, 6 January 2008, London, Jocelyne Cesari, in her study of discrimination against Muslims in Europe,WEB,weblink Muslims In Western Europe After 9/11: Why the term Islamophobia is more a predicament than an explanation, finds that anti-Islamic sentiment may be difficult to separate from other drivers of discrimination. Because Muslims are mainly from immigrant backgrounds and the largest group of immigrants in many Western European countries, xenophobia overlaps with Islamophobia, and a person may have one, the other, or both. So, for example, some people who have a negative perception of and attitude toward Muslims may also show this toward non-Muslim immigrants, either as a whole or certain group (such as, for example, Eastern Europeans, sub-Saharan Africans, or Roma), whereas others would not. Nigel Farage, for example, is anti-EU and in favor of crackdowns on immigration from Eastern Europe, but is favourable to immigration from Islamic Commonwealth countries such as Nigeria and Pakistan.WEB, Mason, Rowena, Nigel Farage: Indian and Australian immigrants better than eastern Europeans,weblink Theguardian,weblink 2015-04-24, {{bar box|title=Unfavorable views of Muslims in Europe, 2019|titlebar=#ddd|left1=Country|right1=Percent|width=400px|bars={{bar percent|Slovakia|peru|77}}{{bar percent|Poland|peru|66}}{{bar percent|Czech Republic|peru|64}}{{bar percent|Hungary|peru|58}}{{bar percent|Greece|peru|57}}{{bar percent|Lithuania|peru|56}}{{bar percent|Italy|peru|55}}{{bar percent|Spain|darkorange|42}}{{bar percent|Sweden|orange|28}}{{bar percent|Netherlands|orange|28}}{{bar percent|Germany|gold|24}}{{bar percent|France|gold|22}}{{bar percent|Russia|gold|19}}{{bar percent|United Kingdom|gold|18}}}}The European Network Against Racism (ENAR) reports that Islamophobic crimes are on the increase in France, England and Wales. In Sweden crimes with an Islamophobic motive increased by 69% from 2009 to 2013.WEB,weblink New report exposes huge rise in racist crime in Europe, Lucy Draper On 5/6/15 at 1:29 PM, EDT, 6 May 2015, Newsweek, An increase of Islamophobia in Russia follows the growing influence of the strongly conservative sect of Wahhabism, according to Nikolai Sintsov of the National Anti-Terrorist Committee.NEWS,weblink Wahhabism expansion in Russia leads to growth of Islamophobia – National Anti-Terrorist Committee, 25 June 2013, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, Various translations of the Qur'an have been banned by the Russian government for promoting extremism and Muslim supremacy.NEWS,weblink Russian court bans Qur'an translation, Daniel Kalder, 8 October 2013, Guardian, NEWS,weblink Russia blacklists translation of the Quran, 9 Oct 2013, Christian Science Monitor, Husna Haq, Anti-Muslim rhetoric is on the rise in Georgia.NEWS,weblink No change for the better: Georgia appears to have moved backwards under Bidzina Ivanishvili, 12 Oct 2013, The Economist, In Greece, Islamophobia accompanies anti-immigrant sentiment, as immigrants are now 15% of the country's population and 90% of the EU's illegal entries are through Greece.NEWS, Rising tide of Islamophobia engulfs Athens,weblink 3 Jan 2011, Globe and Mail, Toronto, In France Islamophobia is tied, in part, to the nation's long-standing tradition of secularism.NEWS,weblink Islamophobia has been trivialized in France, 15 February 2013, The Local, Ben McPartland, With the popularization of the Bulgarian nationalist party ATAKA, Islamophobia in Bulgaria also showed an increase. The party itself participated in the 2011 Banya Bashi Mosque clashes.WEB, Сблъсъци пред джамията "Баня баши" в София - Портал ЕВРОПА,weblink 2023-12-30, old.europe.bg, JOURNAL, Penchev, Pencho, The opportunistic national-populism of the Bulgarian political party Ataka in a historical perspective,weblink L'Europe a Contre-Pied: Ideologie Populiste et Extremisme de Droite en Europe Centrale et Orientale, 75–89, In Myanmar (Burma) the 969 Movement has been accused of events such as the 2012 Rakhine State riots.

Anti-Muslim sentiment elsewhere

File:Rohingya displaced Muslims 010.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Rohingya Muslim refugees fleeing violence in Buddhist-majority MyanmarMyanmarA report from Australia has found that "except for Anglicans, all Christian groups have Islamophobia scores higher than the national average" and that "among the followers of non-Christian religious affiliations, Buddhists and Hindus [also] have significantly higher Islamophobia scores."WEB,weblink Islamophobia, social distance and fear of terrorism in Australia: a preliminary report, 28 July 2023, 4 October 2018,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20181004072601weblink">weblink dead, Following the San Bernardino attack in 2015, Donald Trump, then a candidate for President, proposed "a total and complete shutdown of Muslims entering the United States, until we can figure out what the hell is going on".WEB, 2015-12-08, Donald Trump: ban all Muslims entering US,weblink 2022-09-25, the Guardian, en, Throughout the campaign, Trump repeatedly described Islam and Muslim immigrants and refugees as a threat to the West, and condemned current President Barack Obama for not referring to Islamic State militants as "Islamic terrorists" or "radical Muslims", accusing Obama of cowardice in the face of radical Islam and claiming that Obama had "founded ISIS" through his foreign policy.NEWS, Obama lashes out at Trump, says using the phrase 'radical Islam' is 'not a strategy', en-US, Washington Post,weblink 2022-09-25, 0190-8286, WEB, Donald Trump: President Barack Obama 'Is the Founder of ISIS',weblink 2022-09-25, ABC News, en, Trump's rhetoric was condemned by his opponent, Hillary Clinton, as well as numerous Muslim advocacy groups and activists, and became a focal issue in the 2016 United States presidential election.WEB, Spangler, Todd, Clinton, Trump spar over Islamophobia, Syrian refugees,weblink 2022-09-25, Detroit Free Press, en-US, In 2016, the South Thailand Insurgency, having caused more than 6,500 deaths and purportedly fuelled in part by the Thai military's harsh tactics,WEB, Joshua Kurlantzick, October 20, 2016, A New Approach to Thailand's Insurgency,weblink 2021-09-14, Council on Foreign Relations, en, was reported to be increasing Islamophobia in the country.{{Citation|last=Andre|first=Virginie|title=Thai Cyber-Actors: Evidence of an Islamophobic Effect|date=2016|work=Fear of Muslims? International Perspectives on Islamophobia|pages=111–130|series=Boundaries of Religious Freedom: Regulating Religion in Diverse Societies|publication-place=Deakin University|publisher=Springer International Publishing|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-29698-2_8|isbn=978-3-319-29698-2}}WEB, May 2016, Islamophobia on the rise in Thailand's North,weblink 2021-09-14, KBR (news agency), The Mindanao conflict in the Philippines has also fuelled discrimination against Muslims by some Christian Filipinos.WEB, Amina Rasul, 2007, Radicalisation of Muslims in the Philippines,weblink Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, BOOK, Zempi, Irene,weblink The Routledge International Handbook of Islamophobia, Awan, Imran, 2019-02-11, Routledge, 978-1-351-13553-5, United Kingdom, 516, en, The 2018 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka was suggested to have been a possible trigger for the 2019 Easter bombings.NEWS, Srinivasan, Meera, 2019-04-27, Sri Lanka Easter blasts: 'Anti-Muslim riots a possible trigger', en-IN, The Hindu,weblink 0971-751X, Muslims in the country have reportedly faced increased harassment after the bombings, with some Sinhala Buddhist groups calling for boycotts of Muslim businesses and trade.NEWS, Kadirgamar, Niyanthini, 2019-08-01, The perils of being a woman and a Muslim in Sri Lanka, en-IN, The Hindu,weblink 2021-09-14, 0971-751X, In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including Canada, Germany and France, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China's mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other Muslim minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang re-education camps,WEB, More than 20 ambassadors condemn China's treatment of Uighurs in Xinjiang,weblink The Guardian, 11 July 2019, though ambassadors from 53 others, not including China, rejected said allegations.WEB, 29 October 2019, Joint Statement on Xinjiang at Third Committee,weblink 13 August 2020, unmeetings.org, 11 October 2021,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20211011191511weblink">weblink dead, According to a 2020 report by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute, since 2017, Chinese authorities have destroyed or damaged 16,000 mosques in Xinjiang – 65% of the region's total.NEWS, Davidson, Helen, 2020-09-25, Thousands of Xinjiang mosques destroyed or damaged, report finds, en-GB, The Guardian,weblink 2020-09-26, 0261-3077, NEWS, Skopeliti, Clea, 25 September 2020, China: Nearly two-thirds of Xinjiang mosques damaged or demolished, new report shows, The Independent,weblink 26 September 2020, Emigrants from nearly every predominantly Muslim country have immigrated to Canada.WEB,weblink Census of Canada: Census of Population, Census of Agriculture, 12 June 2023, 27 February 2021,weblink dead, According to a 2013 poll, 54% of Canadians had an unfavourable view of Islam, which was higher than for any other religion (Hinduism, Sikhism etc.).WEB,weblink Canadian Public Opinion Poll, 2 October 2013, angusreidglobal.com, 10 December 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160304042415weblink">weblink 4 March 2016, dead, The 2020 Delhi riots, which left more than 50 dead and hundreds injured,NEWS, Delhi riots: Violence that killed 53 in Indian capital 'was anti-Muslim pogrom', says top expert,weblink The Independent, 7 March 2020, NEWS, For Jews, the New Delhi riots have a painfully familiar ring,weblink The Times of Israel, 11 March 2020, were triggered by protests against a citizenship law seen by many critics as anti-Muslim and part of Prime Minister Narendra Modi's Hindu nationalist agenda.NEWS, Anti-Muslim violence in Delhi serves Modi well,weblink The Guardian, 26 February 2020,

Criticism of term and use

{{Criticism section|date=April 2024}}{{Undue weight section|date=April 2024|to=opinions of anti-Islam Euro-American political commentators}}Although by the first decade of the 21st century the term "Islamophobia" had become widely recognized and used,{{sfn|Poole|2003|p=218|loc=The Runnymede Trust has been successful in that the term Islamophobia is now widely recognized and used, though many right-wing commentators reject its existence or argue that it is justified. However, now becoming a catch-all label for any harassment involving Muslims, it should not be considered unproblematic}} its use, its construction and the concept itself have been criticized. Roland Imhoff and Julia Recker, in an article that puts forward the term "Islamoprejudice" as a better alternative, write that "... few concepts have been debated as heatedly over the last ten years as the term Islamophobia."

Academic debate

Jocelyne Cesari reported widespread challenges in the use and meaning of the term in 2006.WEB,weblink Muslims in Western Europe After 9/11:Why the term Islamophobia is more a predicament than an explanation, Jocelyne Cesari, 15–16 December 2006, According to The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics, "Much debate has surrounded the use of the term, questioning its adequacy as an appropriate and meaningful descriptor. However, since Islamophobia has broadly entered the social and political lexicon, arguments about the appropriateness of the term now seem outdated".ENCYCLOPEDIA, Moten, Abdul Rashid, Abdul Rashid Moten, Shahin, Emad El-Din, Emad Shahin, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics, Islamophobia, 1, 2014, Oxford University Press, 978-0-19-973935-6, 618–620, At the same time, according to a 2014 edition of A Dictionary of Sociology by Oxford University Press, "the exact meaning of Islamophobia continues to be debated amongst academics and policymakers alike." The term has proven problematic and is viewed by some as an obstacle to constructive criticism of Islam. Its detractors fear that it can be applied to any critique of Islamic practices and beliefs, suggesting terms such as "anti-Muslim" instead.ENCYCLOPEDIA, A Dictionary of Sociology, 4th, John Scott, Oxford University Press, 2014, Islamophobia, 978-0-19-968358-1,weblink subscription, The classification of "closed" and "open" views set out in the Runnymede report has been criticized as an oversimplification of a complex issue by scholars like Chris Allen, Fred Halliday, and Kenan Malik.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Chris Allen, Islamophobia, The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, John L. Esposito, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2009, 978-0-19-530513-5,weblink subscription, Paul Jackson, in a critical study of the anti-Islamic English Defence League, argues that the criteria put forward by the Runnymede report for Islamophobia "can allow for any criticism of Muslim societies to be dismissed...". He argues that both jihadi Islamists and far-right activists use the term "to deflect attention away from more nuanced discussions on the make-up of Muslim communities", feeding "a language of polarised polemics". On one hand, it can be used "to close down discussion on genuine areas of criticism" regarding jihadi ideologies, which in turn has resulted in all accusations of Islamophobia to be dismissed as "spurious" by far-right activists. Consequently, the term is "losing much [of its] analytical value".BOOK,weblink The EDL: Britain's 'New Far Right' Social Movement, Jackson, Paul, RMN Publications, University of Northampton, 10–11, 2001, 28 June 2012, 7 September 2019,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20190907055614weblink">weblink Professor Eli Göndör wrote that the term Islamophobia should be replaced with "Muslimophobia".WEB,weblink Eli Göndör: Begreppet islamofobi bör bytas ut, 18 March 2015, 29 September 2018,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20180929050005weblink">weblink As Islamophobia is "a rejection of a population on the grounds of Muslimness", other researches suggest "Muslimism".Bunzl 2007, Bravo Lopéz 2009Professor Mohammad H. Tamdgidi of the University of Massachusetts, Boston, has generally endorsed the definition of Islamophobia as defined by the Runnymede Trust's Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All. However, he notes that the report's list of "open" views of Islam itself presents "an inadvertent definitional framework for Islamophilia": that is, it "falls in the trap of regarding Islam monolithically, in turn as being characterized by one or another trait, and does not adequately express the complex heterogeneity of a historical phenomenon whose contradictory interpretations, traditions, and sociopolitical trends have been shaped and has in turn been shaped, as in the case of any world tradition, by other world-historical forces."JOURNAL, Tamdgidi, Mohammad H., 2012, Beyond Islamophobia and Islamophilia as Western Epistemic Racisms: Revisiting Runnymede Trust's Definition in a World-History Context,weblink Islamophobia Studies Journal, 1, 1, 76,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20131029212606weblink">weblink 29 October 2013, Atheist author and professor Richard Dawkins has criticised the term Islamophobia. He has argued that while hatred of Muslims is "unequivocally reprehensible" the term Islamophobia itself is an "otiose word which doesn't deserve definition."BOOK,weblink Islamophobia - An Anthology of Concerns, Webb, Emma, August 2019, Civitas, v, 978-1-906837-98-3, In 2015, along with the National Secular Society, he expressed opposition to a proposal by then Labour Party leader Ed Miliband to make Islamophobia an "aggravated crime". Dawkins stated that the proposed law was based on a term that is too vague, puts religion above scrutiny and questioned if such a law under the term Islamophobia hypothetically could be used to prosecute Charlie Hebdo or if he could be jailed for quoting violent passages from Islamic scripture on Twitter.WEB,weblink Free speech campaigners concerned by Ed Miliband's vow to ban 'Islamophobia'- without defining what it means, National Secular Society, 29 April 2015, 5 September 2019, Philosopher Michael Walzer says that fear of religious militancy, such as "of Hindutva zealots in India, of messianic Zionists in Israel, and of rampaging Buddhist monks in Myanmar", is not necessarily an irrational phobia, and compares fear of Islamic extremism with the fear Muslims and Jews could feel towards Christians during the crusades. However, he also writes that:Islamophobia is a form of religious intolerance, even religious hatred, and it would be wrong for any leftists to support bigots in Europe and the United States who deliberately misunderstand and misrepresent contemporary Muslims. They make no distinction between the historic religion and the zealots of this moment; they regard every Muslim immigrant in a Western country as a potential terrorist; and they fail to acknowledge the towering achievements of Muslim philosophers, poets, and artists over many centuries.WEB, Walzer, Michael, Michael Walzer, Winter 2015, Islamism and the Left, Dissent (American magazine), Dissent,weblink 2023-01-02,

Commentary

In the wake of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy, a group of 12 writers, including novelist Salman Rushdie and activist Ayaan Hirsi Ali, signed a manifesto entitled Together facing the new totalitarianism in the French weekly satirical newspaper Charlie Hebdo in March 2006, warning against the use of the term Islamophobia to prevent criticism of "Islamic totalitarianism".NEWS, Writers issue cartoon row warning,weblink 19 February 2014, BBC News, 1 March 2006, NEWS, 2006-03-01, Full text: Writers' statement on cartoons,weblink 2014-02-18, We refuse to renounce our critical spirit out of fear of being accused of "Islamophobia", a wretched concept that confuses criticism of Islam as a religion and stigmatisation of those who believe in it., Rushdie added in 2012 that 'Islamophobia' "took the language of analysis, reason and dispute, and stood it on its head".BOOK, Rushdie, Salman, Salman Rushdie, 2012-09-18, (Joseph Anton: A Memoir), Random House, 344–346, 978-0-67-964388-3, Quoted in WEB, 2012-10-15, Salman Rushdie, The Satanic Verses, and Critique of Religion, cārvāka 4 india,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20140223043212weblink">weblink 2014-02-23, unfit, Hirsi Ali added in 2017 that Islamophobia was a "manufactured" term whose usage emboldens radical Muslims to push for censorship and that "we can't stop the injustices if we say everything is 'Islamophobic' and hide behind a politically correct screen."NEWS,weblink Ayaan Hirsi Ali says Australian opponents 'carrying water' for radical Islamists, The Guardian, 4 April 2017, 30 March 2020, Left-wing journalist and 'New Atheist' writer Christopher Hitchens stated in February 2007 that "a stupid term – Islamophobia – has been put into circulation to try and suggest that a foul prejudice lurks behind any misgivings about Islam's infallible 'message.{{'"}}NEWS,weblink The War Within Islam. The growing danger of the Sunni-Shiite rivalry, Christopher Hitchens, Slate, 19 February 2007, 25 July 2020, Writing in the New Humanist in May 2007, philosopher Piers Benn suggests that people who fear the rise of Islamophobia foster an environment "not intellectually or morally healthy", to the point that what he calls "Islamophobia-phobia" can undermine "critical scrutiny of Islam as somehow impolite, or ignorant of the religion's true nature."Benn, Piers (31 May 2007). "On Islamophobia-phobia" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409105511weblink |date=9 April 2014 }}. rationalist.org.uk. (originally published in New Humanist in 2002). Retrieved 18 February 2014.Alan Posener and Alan Johnson have written that, while the idea of Islamophobia is sometimes misused, those who claim that hatred of Muslims is justified as opposition to Islamism actually undermine the struggle against Islamism. The author Sam Harris, while denouncing bigotry, racism, and prejudice against Muslims or Arabs, rejects the term IslamophobiaSam Harris, "Lifting the Veil of 'Islamophobia' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226143543weblink |date=26 December 2016 }} A Conversation with Ayaan Hirsi Ali", 8 May 2014. as an invented psychological disorder, and states criticizing those Islamic beliefs and practices he believes pose a threat to civil society is not a form of bigotry or racism.WEB, Harris, Sam, Sam Harris, 2010-08-13, What Obama Got Wrong About the Mosque, The Daily Beast,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20100816225609weblink">weblink 2010-08-16, dead, Similarly, Pascal Bruckner calls the term "a clever invention because it amounts to making Islam a subject that one cannot touch without being accused of racism."MAGAZINE, Michael Walzer, Islamism and the Left,weblink 2 November 2015, Dissent (American magazine), Dissent, Winter 2015, Michael Walzer, And he adds that, "until proven otherwise, we have the right, in a democratic regime, to judge false and retrograde religions and of not liking them" . Bruckner notes that we have also had reason to fear, in other times, Catholicism .WEB, Bruckner, Pascal, 2010-11-23, L’invention de l’"islamophobie",weblink Libération, fr, WEB, Lévy, Elisabeth, Mihaely, Gil, 2012-10-29, Pascal Bruckner : L’islamophobie, ça n’existe pas !,weblink Causeur, fr-FR, Writing in 2008 Muslim reformist Ed Husain, a former member of Hizb ut-Tahrir and co-founder of Quilliam,Nawaz, Maajid. Radical. W.H. Allen, London: 2012: p. 109 said that under pressure from Islamist extremists, {{"'}}Islamophobia' has become accepted as a phenomenon on a par with racism", claiming that "Outside a few flashpoints where the BNP is at work, most Muslims would be hard-pressed to identify Islamophobia in their lives".NEWS,weblink Stop pandering to the Islamist extremists, London Evening Standard, 7 July 2008, 24 October 2013, Ed Husain, London, Conservative political commentator Douglas Murray has described Islamophobia in 2013 as a "nonsense term" and stated "a phobia is something of which one is irrationally afraid. Yet it is supremely rational to be scared of elements of Islam and of its fundamentalist strains in particular. Nevertheless, the term has been very successfully deployed, not least because it has the aura of a smear. Islamophobes are not only subject to an irrational and unnecessary fear; they are assumed to be motivated (because most Muslims in the West are from an ethnic minority) by "racism". Who would not recoil from such charges?"WEB,weblink Forget 'Islamophobia'. Let's Tackle Islamism, 28 May 2013, Standpoint, 20 March 2020, 24 October 2020,weblink In his paper "A Measure of Islamophobia", British academic Salman Sayyid (2014) argues that these criticisms are a form of etymological fundamentalism and echo earlier comments on racism and antisemitism. Racism and antisemitism were also accused of blocking free speech, of being conceptually weak and too nebulous for practical purposes.Sayyid (2014) 'A measure of Islamophobia' Islamophobia Studies Journal, Vol 2. No. 1, pp. 10–25.French Prime Minister Manuel Valls said in January 2015 following the Charlie Hebdo shooting "It is very important to make clear to people that Islam has nothing to do with ISIS. There is a prejudice in society about this, but on the other hand, I refuse to use this term 'Islamophobia,' because those who use this word are trying to invalidate any criticism at all of the Islamist ideology. The charge of 'Islamophobia' is used to silence people".NEWS, Goldberg, Jeffrey, French Prime Minister: I Refuse to Use This Term Islamophobia,weblink 17 February 2015, The Atlantic, 16 January 2015, Muslim reformist Maajid Nawaz, a former member of the Islamist Hizb ut-Tahrir group and founder of the counter-extremism Quilliam think-tank has criticized the term "Islamophobia" on several occasions, stating in 2020 it conflates racism with blasphemy and "there's a huge difference in being critical of an idea and critical of a person because of their political or religious identity." Nawaz argues that "anti-Muslim bigotry" is a more accurate phrase to use instead of Islamophobia when addressing prejudice faced by people of Muslim origin.WEB, Why you need to stop using the word Islamophobia: Maajid Nawaz,weblink 9 February 2020, LBC, 20 March 2020, British-American physician, author and Muslim reformist writer Qanta A. Ahmed has argued against using the term Islamophobia and has cautioned against using it as part of anti-racism or hate speech legislation by claiming jihadis will exploit it. She has argued that "while we're getting better at thwarting terrorist attacks, we're still fighting their ideological underpinning. As a secular pluralistic democracy, we have weapons: intellectual scrutiny, critical thinking and above all the insight to command the language of this war of ideas. And to use the word Islamophobia when talking about anti-Muslim xenophobia is to use the vocabulary and adopt the rulebook of the Islamists who wish to obfuscate their intent."NEWS, Ahmed, Qanta, 23 December 2018, As a Muslim woman I'd like to thank Boris Johnson for calling out the burka,weblink The Spectator, 16 March 2021, 30 August 2019,weblink dead,

The Associated Press Stylebook

In December 2012, media sources reported that the terms "homophobia" and "Islamophobia" would no longer be included in the AP Stylebook. Deputy Standards Editor Dave Minthorn said "a phobia is a psychiatric or medical term for a severe mental disorder,"NEWS, AP Nixes 'homophobia', 'ethnic cleansing', Dylan Byers,weblink Politico, 26 December 2012, 5 June 2013, and thus not appropriate to use them in articles with political or social contexts because they imply an understanding of the mental state of another individual.NEWS, The Associated Press and Terms Like'Homophobia', Warren J. Blumenfeld,weblink Huffington Post, 5 December 2012, 6 June 2013,

Countering Islamophobia

International

On 16 March 2022, UN designated March 15 as International Day To Combat Islamophobia.NEWS, UN Designated March 15, Combat Day To Islamophobia, Dawn News,weblink

Europe

On 26 September 2018, the European Parliament in Brussels launched the "Counter-Islamophobia Toolkit" (CIK), with the goal of combatting the growing Islamophobia across the EU and to be distributed to national governments and other policy makers, civil society and the media. Based on the most comprehensive research in Europe, it examines patterns of Islamophobia and effective strategies against it in eight member states. It lists ten dominant narratives and ten effective counter-narratives.WEB,weblink University of Leeds, CIK Toolkit Launch – European Parliament, Brussels, 26 September 2018, 1 March 2019, 1 March 2019,weblink dead, WEB, 1 March 2019,weblink Counter-Islamophobia Kit, Equinet European Network of Equality Bodies, 4 October 2019, WEB, Counter-Islamophobia kit:briefing paper and toolkit of counter-narratives to Islamophobia, Ian, Law, Easat-Daas, Amina, S., Sayyid, 1 March 2019, University of Leeds, September 2018,weblink 8 August 2019,weblink dead, One of the authors of the CIK, Amina Easat-Daas, says that Muslim women are disproportionately affected by Islamophobia, based on both the "threat to the west" and "victims of...Islamic sexism" narratives. The approach taken in the CIK is a four-step one: defining the misinformed narratives based on flawed logic; documenting them; deconstructing these ideas to expose the flaws; and finally, reconstruction of mainstream ideas about Islam and Muslims, one closer to reality. The dominant ideas circulating in popular culture should reflect the diverse everyday experiences of Muslims and their faith.NEWS, The Conversation, How to tackle Islamophobia – the best strategies from around Europe,weblink 21 February 2019, 1 March 2019, Easat-Daas, Amina,

See also

• Anti-Arabism
• Criticism of Islam
• International Day To Combat Islamophobia
  • Islamophobia in the media
  • Islamophobia Watch
  • Islamophobic incidents
• Islamophobic tropes
• Minority stress
• Nativism (politics)
• Nativism (politics) in the United States
• Peace in Islam
• Persecution of Muslims
• Religious intolerance
• Religious persecution
• Religious violence
• Religious war
  • 9/11
  • 7/7 Attacks
• World Hijab Day

References

Notes

{{Reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

Citations

{{reflist}}

Sources

• BOOK, Benn, Tansin, Jawad, H. A., amp, Muslim Women in the United Kingdom and Beyond: Experiences and Images,weblink 2003, Brill Publishers, 178, 978-90-04-12581-0,
• JOURNAL, Davison, Alan, Multiculturalism, Social Distance and "Islamophobia": Reflections on Anti-racism Research in Australia and Beyond, springer, 42–51, none, yes, Journal Society (59), 2022, 59, 10.1007/s12115-021-00641-4, 10453/151199, 244581073, free,
• BOOK, Egorova, Y., Parfitt, T., amp, Jews, Muslims, and Mass Media: Mediating the 'Other', 2003, Routledge Curzon, London, 978-0-415-31839-6,
• BOOK, Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Muslims in the West: From Sojourners to Citizens,weblink 2002, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 336, 978-0-19-514805-3,
• BOOK, Robert, Miles, Malcolm, Brown, amp, Racism,weblink 2003, London, New York, Psychology Press, 197, 9780415296779,
• ENCYCLOPEDIA, Cashmore, Ellis, Poole, E., Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies, Islamophobia, 2003, 978-0-415-44714-0, 215–19, Routledge,
• BOOK, Williams, Charlotte, Soydan, Haluk, Johnson, Mark, amp, Social Work and Minorities: European Perspectives,weblink London, New York, 1998, Routledge, 273, 978-0-415-16962-2,

Further reading

• Ali, Wajahat; Clifton, Eli; Duss, Matthew; Fang, Lee; Keyes, Scott; and Shakir, Faiz (August 26, 2011) "Fear, Inc.: The Roots of the Islamophobia Network in America". American Progress. Accessed 24 February 2015.
• Allen, Chris (2011). Islamophobia. Ashgate Publishing Company.
• BOOK, Abbas, Tahir, Muslim Britain: Communities Under Pressure, 2005, Zed, 978-1-84277-449-6,
• Duss, Matthew; Taeb; Yasmine; Gude, Ken; and Sofer, Ken (February 11, 2015) "Fear, Inc. 2.0: The Islamophobia Network's Efforts to Manufacture Hate in America". American Progress. Accessed 24 February 2015.
• BOOK, Gottschalk, P., Greenberg, G., Islamophobia: Making Muslims the Enemy,weblink registration, 2007, Rowman & Littlefield publishers, Lanham, 978-0-7425-5286-9,
• BOOK, Greaves, R., Islam and the West Post 9/11, 2004, Ashgate publishing Ltd., 978-0-7546-5005-8,
• Itaoui, Rhonda (2016). "The Geography of Islamophobia in Sydney: mapping the spatial imaginaries of young Muslims", in Australian Geographer. Vol 47:3, 261–79.
• Kaplan, Jeffrey (2006). "Islamophobia in America?: September 11 and Islamophobic Hate Crime {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612113144weblink |date=12 June 2018 }}", Terrorism and Political Violence (Routledge), 18:1, 1–33.
• Kincheloe, Joe L. and Steinberg, Shirley R. (2004). The Miseducation of the West: How the Schools and Media Distort Our Understanding of Islam. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Press. (Arabic Edition, 2005).
• Kincheloe, Joe L. and Steinberg, Shirley R. (2010). Teaching Against Islamophobia. New York: Peter Lang.
• Konrad, Felix (2011). From the "Turkish Menace" to Exoticism and Orientalism: Islam as Antithesis of Europe (1453–1914)?, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History. Retrieved: 22 June 2011.
• Kundnani, Arun. (2014) The Muslims Are Coming! Islamaphobia, Extremism, and the Domestic War on Terror (Verso; 2014) 327 pages
• Lajevardi, N. (2020). Outsiders at Home: The Politics of American Islamophobia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• BOOK, Islamophobia and Racism in America, 2017, Erik, Love, NYU Press, 978-1479838073,
• JOURNAL, Pynting, Scott, Mason, Victoria, amp, 2007, The Resistible Rise of Islamophobia: Anti-Muslim Racism in the UK and Australia before 11 September 2001". Journal of Sociology,weblink The Australian Sociological Association, 43, 1, 61–86, 10.1177/1440783307073935, 145065236,
• BOOK, Quraishi, M., Muslims and Crime: A Comparative Study, 2005, Ashgate Publishing, 978-0-7546-4233-6,
• BOOK, Ramadan, T., Western Muslims and the Future of Islam, 2004, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 978-0-19-517111-2,
• BOOK, Richardson, John E., (Mis)representing Islam: the racism and rhetoric of British broadsheet newspapers, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2004, 978-90-272-2699-0,weblink
• Sheehi, Stephen (2011). Islamophobia: The Ideological Campaign Against Muslims. Clarity Press.
• Shryock, Andrew, ed. (2010). (Islamophobia/Islamophilia: Beyond the Politics of Enemy and Friend). Indiana University Press. p. 250. Essays on Islamophobia past and present; topics include the "neo-Orientalism" of three Muslim commentators today: Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Reza Aslan, and Irshad Manji.
• Silva, Derek (2017). "The Othering of Muslims: Discourses of Radicalization in the New York Times, 1969–2014", Sociological Forum, 32:1, 138–161.
• Tausch, Arno with Bischof, Christian; Kastrun, Tomaz; and Mueller, Karl (2007). Against Islamophobia: Muslim Communities, Social-Exclusion and the Lisbon Process in Europe. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers. {{ISBN|978-1-60021-535-3}}.
• Tausch, Arno with Bischof, Christian and Mueller, Karl (2008). Muslim Calvinism: Internal Security and the Lisbon Process in Europe. Purdue University Press. {{ISBN|978-905170995-7}}.
• Tausch, Arno (2007). Against Islamophobia: Quantitative Analyses of Global Terrorism, World Political Cycles and Center Periphery Structures. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers. {{ISBN|978-1-60021-536-0}}.
• BOOK, van Driel, B., Confronting Islamophobia In Educational Practice, 2004, Trentham Books, 978-1-85856-340-4,

External links

{{Sister project links}}

• weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20111105101311weblink">Islamophobia Studies Journal – Islamophobia Research & Documentation Project, UC Berkeley
• Reports – European Islamophobia – European Islamophobia Reports EIR
• Islamophobia Today newspaper {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922184915weblink |date=22 September 2021 }} – an Islamophobia news clearing house
• Sammy Aziz Rahmatti, Understanding and Countering Islamophobia

{{World topic|prefix=Islamophobia in|noredlinks=y|title=Islamophobia by country}}{{Islam topics |collapsed}}{{Discrimination}}{{Religious persecution}}{{Authority control}}