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protectorate
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{{Short description|Concept in international relations}}{{For|the 17th-century British protectorate|The Protectorate}}{{Distinguish|Protecting power}}{{Forms of government|Power structure}}A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a state that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law.{{sfnp|Hoffmann, Protectorates|1987|p=336}} It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over most of its internal affairs, while still recognizing the suzerainty of a more powerful sovereign state without being a possession.JOURNAL, Fuess, Albrecht, Was Cyprus a Mamluk protectorate? Mamluk policies toward Cyprus between 1426 and 1517, Journal of Cyprus Studies, 1 January 2005, 11, 28–29, 11–29,go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CA144051591&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=13032925&p=AONE&sw=w, 1303-2925, 24 October 2020, en, JOURNAL, Reisman, W., Reflections on State Responsibility for Violations of Explicit Protectorate, Mandate, and Trusteeship Obligations, Michigan Journal of International Law, 1 January 1989, 10, 1, 231–240,repository.law.umich.edu/mjil/vol10/iss1/21/, 24 October 2020, 1052-2867, JOURNAL, Bojkov, Victor D., Democracy in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Post-1995 political system and its functioning, Southeast European Politics 4.1, 41–67,homepage.univie.ac.at/vedran.dzihic/bojkov_2003.pdf, In exchange, the protectorate usually accepts specified obligations depending on the terms of their arrangement. Usually protectorates are established de jure by a treaty. Under certain conditions—as with Egypt under British rule (1882–1914)—a state can also be labelled as a de facto protectorate or a veiled protectorate.JOURNAL, Leys, Colin, The British ruling class, Socialist Register, 2014, 50,socialistregister.com/index.php/srv/article/view/20194, 23 October 2020, en, 0081-0606, JOURNAL, Kirkwood, Patrick M., “Lord Cromer’s Shadow”: Political Anglo-Saxonism and the Egyptian Protectorate as a Model in the American Philippines, Journal of World History, 21 July 2016, 27, 1, 1–26, 10.1353/jwh.2016.0085, 148316956,muse.jhu.edu/article/625981/summary, 23 October 2020, en, 1527-8050, JOURNAL, Rubenson, Sven, Professor Giglio, Antonelli and Article XVII of the Treaty of Wichale, The Journal of African History, 1966, 7, 3, 445–457, 10.1017/S0021853700006526, 180113, 162713931,www.jstor.org/stable/180113, 24 October 2020, 0021-8537, A protectorate is different from a colony as it has local rulers, is not directly possessed, and rarely experiences colonization by the suzerain state.BOOK, Archer, Francis Bisset, The Gambia Colony and Protectorate: An Official Handbook, Psychology Press, 978-0-7146-1139-6, 1967,books.google.com/books?id=wk6o1XniPsQC, en, JOURNAL, Johnston, Alex., The Colonization of British East Africa, Journal of the Royal African Society, 1905, 5, 17, 28–37, 715150,www.jstor.org/stable/715150, 24 October 2020, 0368-4016, A state that is under the protection of another state while retaining its “international personality” is called a “protected state”, not a protectorate.{{sfnp|Meijknecht, Towards International Personality|2001|p=42}}{{efn|name=informal}}

History

Protectorates are one of the oldest features of international relations, dating back to the Roman Empire. Civitates foederatae were cities that were subordinate to Rome for their foreign relations. In the Middle Ages, Andorra was a protectorate of France and Spain. Modern protectorate concepts were devised in the nineteenth century.{{sfnp|Willigen, Peacebuilding and International Administration|2013|p=16}}

Typology

Foreign relations

In practice, a protectorate often has direct foreign relations only with the protector state, and transfers the management of all its more important international affairs to the latter.JOURNAL, Yoon, Jong-pil, Establishing expansion as a legal right: an analysis of French colonial discourse surrounding protectorate treaties, History of European Ideas, 17 August 2020, 46, 6, 811–826, 10.1080/01916599.2020.1722725, 214425740,www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01916599.2020.1722725, 24 October 2020, 0191-6599, Similarly, the protectorate rarely takes military action on its own but relies on the protector for its defence. This is distinct from annexation, in that the protector has no formal power to control the internal affairs of the protectorate.Protectorates differ from League of Nations mandates and their successors, United Nations Trust Territories, whose administration is supervised, in varying degrees, by the international community. A protectorate formally enters into the protection through a bilateral agreement with the protector, while international mandates are stewarded by the world community-representing body, with or without a administering power.

Protected state

{{See also|List of countries without armed forces}}A protected state has a form of protection where it continues to retain an “international personality” and enjoys an agreed amount of independence in conducting its foreign policy.{{sfnp|Meijknecht, Towards International Personality|2001|p=42}}{{harvp|Willigen, Peacebuilding and International Administration|2013|p=16}}: “First, protected states are entities which still have substantial authority in their internal affairs, retain some control over their foreign policy, and establish their relation to the protecting state on a treaty or another legal instrument. Protected states still have qualifications of statehood.“For political and pragmatic reasons, the protection relationship is not usually advertised, but described with euphemisms such as “an independent state with special treaty relations” with the protecting state.{{sfnp|Onley, The Raj Reconsidered|2009|p=50}} A protected state appears on world maps just as any other independent state.{{efn|name=informal|Protected state in this technical sense is distinguished from the informal usage of “protected state” to refer to a state receiving protection.}}International administration of a state can also be regarded as an internationalized form of protection, where the protector is an international organisation rather than a state.{{sfnp|Willigen, Peacebuilding and International Administration|2013|pp=16–17}}

Colonial protection

Multiple regions—such as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos, and similar—were subjects of colonial protection.JOURNAL, Onah, Emmanuel Ikechi, Nigeria: A Country Profile, Journal of International Studies, 9 January 2020, 10, 151–162, 10.32890/jis.10.2014.7954, 226175755,e-journal.uum.edu.my/index.php/jis/article/view/7954, 21 September 2021, en, 2289-666X, free, JOURNAL, Moloney, Alfred, Notes on Yoruba and the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos, West Africa, Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography, 1890, 12, 10, 596–614, 10.2307/1801424, 1801424,www.jstor.org/stable/1801424, 21 September 2021, 0266-626X, Conditions of protection are generally much less generous for areas of colonial protection. The protectorate was often reduced to a condition similar to a colony, but with the pre-existing native state continuing as the agent of indirect rule. Occasionally, a protectorate was established by another form of indirect rule: a chartered company, which becomes a state in its European home state (but geographically overseas), allowed to be an independent country with its own foreign policy and generally its own armed forces.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}In fact, protectorates were often declared despite no agreement being duly entered into by the state supposedly being protected, or only agreed to by a party of dubious authority in those states. Colonial protectors frequently decided to reshuffle several protectorates into a new, artificial unit without consulting the protectorates, without being mindful of the theoretical duty of a protector to help maintain a protectorate’s status and integrity. The Berlin agreement of February 26, 1885, allowed European colonial powers to establish protectorates in Black Africa (the last region to be divided among them) by diplomatic notification, even without actual possession on the ground. This aspect of history is referred to as the Scramble for Africa. A similar case is the formal use of such terms as colony and protectorate for an amalgamation—convenient only for the colonizer or protector—of adjacent territories, over which it held () sway by protective or “raw” colonial power.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Amical protection

In amical protection—as of United States of the Ionian Islands by Britain—the terms are often very favourable for the protectorate.{{citation |last=Wick |first=Alexis |title=The Red Sea: In Search of Lost Space |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=haowDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA133 |year=2016 |publisher=Univ of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-28592-7 |pages=133–}}JOURNAL, Αλιβιζάτου, Αικατερίνη, Use of GIS in analyzing archaeological sites: the case study of Mycenaean Cephalonia, Greece,amitos.library.uop.gr/xmlui/handle/123456789/5063, 12 March 2019, University of Peloponnese, en, 2 July 2022, The political interest of the protector is frequently moral (a matter of accepted moral obligation, prestige, ideology, internal popularity, or dynastic, historical, or ethnocultural ties). Also, the protector’s interest is in countering a rival or enemy power—such as preventing the rival from obtaining or maintaining control of areas of strategic importance. This may involve a very weak protectorate surrendering control of its external relations but may not constitute any real sacrifice, as the protectorate may not have been able to have a similar use of them without the protector’s strength.Amical protection was frequently extended by the great powers to other Christian (generally European) states, and to states of no significant importance.{{Ambiguous|date=November 2011}} After 1815, non-Christian states (such as the Chinese Qing dynasty) also provided amical protection of other, much weaker states.In modern times, a form of amical protection can be seen as an important or defining feature of microstates. According to the definition proposed by Dumienski (2014): “microstates are modern protected states, i.e. sovereign states that have been able to unilaterally depute certain attributes of sovereignty to larger powers in exchange for benign protection of their political and economic viability against their geographic or demographic constraints”.REPORT, DumieÅ„ski, Zbigniew, Microstates as Modern Protected States: Towards a New Definition of Micro-Statehood,ams.hi.is/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Microstates_OccasionalPaper.pdf, 2014,web.archive.org/web/20140714195156/https://ams.hi.is/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Microstates_OccasionalPaper.pdf, Centre for Small State Studies, Occasional Paper, 14 July 2014, 2 July 2022,

Argentina’s protectorates

  • {{Flagicon image|Flag of Artigas 1815.svg}} Liga Federal (1815–1820)
  • {{Flagicon image|Flag of Chile.svg}} Chile (1817–1818)
  • {{Flagicon image|Flag of Peru (1821-1822).svg}} Peru (1820–1822)
  • {{flagicon|Riograndense Republic}} Riograndense Republic (1836–1845)
  • {{flagicon|Juliana Republic}} Juliana Republic (1839–1845)
  • {{Flagicon image|Flag of Uruguay (Oribe).svg}} Gobierno del Cerrito (1843–1851)
  • {{flagicon|Paraguay}} Paraguay (1876)
De facto“>

De facto

  • {{Flagicon image|Bandera de la Provincia de Tucumán.svg}} Republic of Tucumán (1820–1821)
  • {{Flagicon image|Bandera de la Provincia de Misiones.svg}} (:es:Territorio nacional de Misiones|National Territory of Misiones) (1865–1954)
  • {{Flagicon image|Bandera de la Provincia del Chaco.svg}} (:es:Territorio Nacional del Gran Chaco|National Territory of the Gran Chaco) (1874–1884)
  • {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Argentina.svg}} (:es:Gobernación de la Patagonia|National Territory of the Patagonia) (1878–1884)
  • {{Flagicon image|Bandera de la Provincia de Tierra del Fuego.svg}} (:es:territorio nacional de la Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Sur|National Territory of the Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica and South Atlantic Islands) (1884–1991)

Brazil’s protectorates

British Empire’s protectorates and protected states

Americas

  • {{Flag icon|Mosquito Coast}} Mosquitia (1638–1860; over Central America’s Miskito Indian nation)

Europe

  • {{flagicon|UK|variant=}} {{flagicon|Two Sicilies|variant=1815}} Malta Protectorate (1800–1813); {{flagicon|Malta|variant=1814}} Crown Colony of Malta proclaimed in 1813) (de jure part of the Kingdom of Sicily but under British protection)
  • (File:Flag of the United States of the Ionian Islands.svg|24x24px) Ionian islands (1815–1864) (a Greek state and amical protectorate of Great Britain between 1815 and 1864)
  • (File:Flag of Cyprus (1881-1922).svg|24x24px) British Cyprus (1878–1914) (put under British military administration 1914–22 then proclaimed a Crown Colony 1922–60)

South Asia

Western Asia

  • {{flagicon image|No flag.svg|size=24px}} British Residency of the Persian Gulf (1822–1971); headquarters based in Bushire, Persia
    • {{flag|Bahrain|1932}}, protected state (1880–1971){{sfnp|Onley, The Raj Reconsidered|2009|p=50}}
    • {{flagicon image|Flag of Kuwait 1940-1961.png}} Sheikhdom of Kuwait, protected state (1899–1961){{sfnp|Onley, The Raj Reconsidered|2009|p=50}}
    • {{flagicon image|Flag of Qatar (1936-1949).svg}} Qatar, protected state (1916–1971)
    • {{flag|Trucial States}}; precursor state of the UAE, protected states (1892–1971){{sfnp|Onley, The Raj Reconsidered|2009|p=50}}
      • {{flagicon image|Flag of Abu Dhabi.svg}} Abu Dhabi (1820–1971)
      • {{flagicon image|Flag of Ajman.svg}} Ajman (1820–1971)
      • {{flagicon image|Flag of Dubai.svg}} Dubai (1835–1971)
      • {{flagicon image|Flag of Fujairah (1952–1972).svg}} Fujairah (1952–1971)
      • {{flagicon image|Flag of Sharjah.svg}} Ras Al Khaimah (1820–1971)
      • {{flagicon image|Flag of Sharjah.svg}} Sharjah (1820–1971)
{{flagicon image|Flag of Sharjah.svg}} Kalba (1936–1951)
      • {{flagicon image|Flag of Umm al-Qaiwain.svg}} Umm al-Qaiwain (1820–1971)
    • {{flag|Muscat and Oman}} (1892–1971; informal, protected state)WEB, Francis Carey Owtram, 1999, Oman and the West: State Formation in Oman since 1920,etheses.lse.ac.uk/1556/1/U126805.pdf, 31 October 2020, University of London, {{sfnp|Onley, The Raj Reconsidered|2009|pp=50–51}}
  • {{flagicon image|No flag.svg|size=24px}} Aden Protectorate (1872–1963); precursor state of South Yemen{{sfnp|Onley, The Raj Reconsidered|2009|p=51}}
    • Eastern Protectorate States (mostly in Hadhramaut); later the Protectorate of South Arabia (1963–1967)
      • {{flagicon image|Kathiri flag.svg}} Kathiri
      • {{flagicon image|Mahraflag.svg}} Mahra
      • {{flagicon image|Flag of Quaiti Hadramaut.svg}} Qu’aiti
      • {{flagicon image|Flag of the State of Upper Yafa.svg}} Upper Yafa (consisted of five Sheikhdoms: Al-Busi, Al-Dhubi, Hadrami, Maflahi, and Mawsata)
      • {{flagicon image|No flag.svg|size=24px}} Hawra
      • {{flagicon image|No flag.svg|size=24px}} Irqa
    • Western Protectorate States; later the Federation of South Arabia (1959/1962–1967), including Aden Colony
      • {{flagicon image|Flag of Wahidi Balhaf.svg|24px}} Wahidi Sultanates (these included: Balhaf, Azzan, Bir Ali, and Habban)
      • {{flagicon image|Flag of Beihan.svg}} Beihan
      • {{flagicon image|Flag of Dhala.svg}} Dhala and Qutaibi
      • {{flagicon image|Flag of the Sultanate of Fadhli.svg}} Fadhli
      • {{flagicon image|Flag of the Sultanate of Lahej.svg}} Lahej
      • {{flagicon image|Flag of Lower Yafa.svg}} Lower Yafa
      • {{flagicon image|No flag.svg|size=24px}} Audhali
      • {{flagicon image|سلطنة_الحواشب.png|size=24px}} Haushabi
      • {{flagicon image|No flag.svg|size=24px}} Upper Aulaqi Sheikhdom
      • {{flagicon image|No flag.svg|size=24px}} Upper Aulaqi Sultanate
      • {{flagicon image|No flag.svg|size=24px}} Lower Aulaqi
      • {{flagicon image|علم_مشيخة_العلوي.png|size=24px}} Alawi
      • {{flagicon image|علم_مشيخة_العقربي.png|size=24px}} Aqrabi
      • {{flagicon image|علم_جمهورية_دثينة.png|size=24px}} Dathina
      • {{flagicon image|No flag.svg|size=24px}} Shaib

Africa

File:1960 6d Bechuanaland Protectorate stamp.jpg|thumb|1960 stamp of Bechuanaland Protectorate with the portraits of Queen Victoria and Queen Elizabeth II ]]

De facto

Oceania

  • {{flag|Territory of Papua|}} (1884–1888)
  • {{flagicon image|No flag.svg|size=24px}} Tokelau (1877–1916)
  • (File:Flag of Rarotonga 1888-1893.svg|24x24px) Cook Islands (1888–1893)
  • {{flag|Gilbert and Ellice Islands|}} (1892–1916)
  • (File:Flag of the Solomon Islands (1906–1947).svg|24x24px) British Solomon Islands (1893–1978)
  • {{flagicon image|No flag.svg|size=24px}} Niue (1900–1901)
  • {{flag|Tonga|}} (1900–1970)

East and Southeast Asia

  • {{flagicon|North Borneo|variant=}} British North Borneo (1888–1946)
  • {{flag|Brunei|1906}} (1888–1984)
  • {{flag|Raj of Sarawak|}} (1888–1946)
  • {{flagicon|Malaya|variant=}} Federation of Malaya (1948–1957)
    • {{flag|Federated Malay States|}} (1895–1946)
      • {{flag|Negeri Sembilan|}} (1888–1895)
(File:Flag of Sungei Ujong.svg|24x24px) Sungai Ujong (1874–1888) {{flagicon image|No flag.svg|size=24px}} Jelebu (1886–1895)
      • {{flag|Pahang|}} (1888–1895)
      • {{flag|Perak|}} (1874–1895)
      • {{flag|Selangor|}} (1874–1895)
    • {{flagicon image|No flag.svg|size=24px}} Unfederated Malay States (1904/09–1946)
      • {{flag|Johor|}} (1914–1946)
{{flag|Johor|1855}} Muar (1897–1909)
      • {{flag|Kedah|}} (1909–1946)
{{flag|Kedah|18th century}} Kulim (1894–1909)
      • {{flag|Kelantan|}} (1909–1946)
      • {{flag|Perlis|}} (1909–1946)
      • {{flag|Terengganu|}} (1909–1946)

China’s protectorates

{{Further|Protectorate (Duhu Fu)}}
  • Han dynasty:
  • Tang dynasty:
  • Yuan dynasty:
    • {{Flagicon image|Royal_flag_of_Goryeo_(Bong-gi).svg}} Goryeo (1270–1356)“A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present, by Michael J. Seth”, p112
  • Qing dynasty:
    • {{Flagicon image|Flag of Tibet (1916-1951).svg}} Tibet{{citation |last=Goldstein |first=Melvyn C. |title=Tibet, China and the United States |publisher=The Atlantic Council |date=April 1995 |url=https://case.edu/affil/tibet/documents/ReflectionsontheTibetQuestion1995.pdf |via=Case Western Reserve University |page=3}}{{citation |last=Norbu |first=Dawa |title=China’s Tibet Policy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EGqyIgOlUCIC&pg=PA78 |year=2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-79793-4 |page=78}}BOOK, Lin, Hsaio-ting, Tibet and Nationalist China’s Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928–49,books.google.com/books?id=osn1WrRCelcC&pg=PA8, 2011, UBC Press, 978-0-7748-5988-2, 8, {{efn|Some scholars regard the relationship as one of Priest-patron rather than a protectorate.{{citation |first=Robert D. |last=Sloane |title=The Changing Face of Recognition in International Law: A Case Study of Tibet |journal=Emory International Law Review |volume=16 |number=1 |date=Spring 2002 |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/Print?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/emint16&id=113 |via=Hein Online |at=note 93, p. 135: “This [“priest-patron”] relationship reemerged during China’s prolonged domination by the Manchu Ch’ing dynasty (1611–1911).“}}{{citation |last=Karan |first=P. P. |chapter=Suppression of Tibetan Religious Heritage |editor=S.D. Brunn |title=The Changing World Religion Map |publisher=Spriger Science |year=2015 |doi=10.1007/978-94-017-9376-6_23 |page=462|isbn=978-94-017-9375-9 }}{{citation |last=Sinha |first=Nirmal C. |title=Historical Status of Tibet |journal=Bulletin of Tibetology |volume=1 |number=1 |date=May 1964 |url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/bot/pdf/bot_01_01_04.pdf |page=27}}}}

Dutch Empire’s protectorates

Various sultanates in the Dutch East Indies (present day Indonesia):WEB, Indonesian traditional polities,rulers.org/indotrad.html, 2024-01-16, rulers.org, WEB, Indonesian Traditional States part 1,www.worldstatesmen.org/Indonesia_princely_states1.html, 2024-01-16, www.worldstatesmen.org, WEB, Indonesian Traditional States Part 2,www.worldstatesmen.org/Indonesia_princely_states2.html, 2024-01-17, www.worldstatesmen.org,

Sumatra

  • Tarumon Kingdom (1830–1946)
  • Langkat Sultanate (26 October 1869 – December 1945)
  • Deli Sultanate (22 August 1862 – December 1945)
  • Asahan Sultanate (27 September 1865 – December 1945)
  • Bila (1864–1946)
  • Tasik (Kota Pinang) (1865 – December 1945)
  • Siak Sultanate (1 February 1858 – 1946)
  • Sungai Taras (Kampong Raja) (1864–1916)
  • Panei (1864–1946)
  • Sultanate of Serdang (1865 – December 1945)
  • Indragiri (1838 – September 1945)
  • Jambi (1833–1899)
  • Kuala (1886–1946)
  • Pelalawan (1859 – November 1945)
  • Siantar (1904–1946)
  • Tanah Jawa (1904–1946)

Riau Archipelago

Java

Bali

Lombok

  • Lombok (1843–1894)
  • Sumbawa (1908–c. 1948)
  • Bima (8 December 1669 – 1949)
  • Dompu (1905–1942)

Flores & Solor

  • Larantuka (1860–c. 1947)
  • Tanah Kuna Lima (1917–1924)
  • Ndona (1917–1924)
  • Sikka (1879–c. 1947)

Borneo

Celebes

  • Gowa Sultanate (1669–1906; 1936–1949)
  • Bone Sultanate (1669–1905)
  • Bolaang Mongonduw (1825–c. 1949)
  • Laiwui (1858–c. 1949)
  • Luwu (1861–c. 1949)
  • Soppeng (1860–c. 1949)
  • Butung (1824–c. 1949)
  • Siau (1680–c. 1949)
  • Banggai (1907–c. 1949)
  • Tallo (1668–1780)
  • Wajo (1860–c. 1949)
  • Tabukan (1677–c. 1949)

Ajattappareng Confederacy (1905–c. 1949)

  • Malusetasi
  • Rapang
  • Swaito (union of Sawito & Alita, 1908)
  • Sidenreng
  • Supa

Mabbatupappeng Confederacy (1906–c. 1949)

  • Barru
  • Soppengriaja (union of Balusu, Kiru, & Kamiri, 1906)
  • Tanette

Mandar Confederacy (1906–c. 1949)

  • Balangnipa
  • Binuang
  • Cenrana
  • Majene
  • Mamuju
  • Pambauang
  • Tapalang

Massenrempulu Confederacy (1905–c. 1949)

The Moluccas

West Timor & Alor

  • Amanatun (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amanuban (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amarasi (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amfoan (1683–c. 1949)
  • Beboki (1756–c. 1949)
  • Belu (1756–c.1949)
  • Insana (1756–c.1949)
  • Sonbai Besar (1756–1906)
  • Sonbai Kecil (1659–1917)
  • Roti (Korbafo before 1928) (c. 1750–c.1949)
  • TaEbenu (1688–1917)

New Guinea

France’s protectorates and protected states

Africa

“Protection” was the formal legal structure under which French colonial forces expanded in Africa between the 1830s and 1900. Almost every pre-existing state that was later part of French West Africa was placed under protectorate status at some point, although direct rule gradually replaced protectorate agreements. Formal ruling structures, or fictive recreations of them, were largely retained—as with the low-level authority figures in the French Cercles—with leaders appointed and removed by French officials.See the classic account on this in Robert Delavignette. Freedom and Authority in French West Africa. London: Oxford University Press, (1950). The more recent standard studies on French expansion include:Robert Aldrich. Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion. Palgrave MacMillan (1996) {{ISBN|0-312-16000-3}}.Alice L. Conklin. A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa 1895–1930. Stanford: Stanford University Press (1998), {{ISBN|978-0-8047-2999-4}}.Patrick Manning. Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa, 1880–1995. Cambridge University Press (1998) {{ISBN|0-521-64255-8}}.Jean Suret-Canale. Afrique Noire: l’Ere Coloniale (Editions Sociales, Paris, 1971); Eng. translation, French Colonialism in Tropical Africa, 1900 1945. (New York, 1971).
  • Benin traditional states
    • Independent of {{Flagicon image|Royal banner of Béhanzin of Dahomey.svg}} Danhome, under French protectorate, from 1889
    • Porto-Novo a French protectorate, 23 February 1863 – 2 January 1865. Cotonou a French Protectorate, 19 May 1868. Porto-Novo French protectorate, 14 April 1882.
  • Central African Republic traditional states:
    • French protectorate over Dar al-Kuti (1912 Sultanate suppressed by the French), 12 December 1897
    • French protectorate over the Sultanate of Bangassou, 1894
  • Burkina Faso was from 20 February 1895 a French protectorate named Upper Volta (Haute-Volta)
  • Chad: Baghirmi state 20 September 1897 a French protectorate
  • Côte d’Ivoire: 10 January 1889 French protectorate of Ivory Coast
  • Guinea: 5 August 1849 French protectorate over coastal region; (Riviéres du Sud).
  • Niger, Sultanate of Damagaram (Zinder), 30 July 1899 under French protectorate over the native rulers, titled Sarkin Damagaram or Sultan
  • Senegal: 4 February 1850 First of several French protectorate treaties with local rulers
  • Comoros21 April 1886 French protectorate (Anjouan) until 25 July 1912 when annexed.
  • Present Djibouti was originally, from 24 June 1884, the Territory of Obock and Protectorate of Tadjoura (Territoires Français d’Obock, Tadjoura, Dankils et Somalis), a French protectorate recognized by Britain on 9 February 1888, renamed on 20 May 1896 as French Somaliland (Côte Française des Somalis).
  • Mauritania: 12 May 1903 French protectorate; within Mauritania several traditional states:
    • Adrar emirate from 9 January 1909 French protectorate (before Spanish)
    • The Taganit confederation’s emirate (founded by Idaw `Ish dynasty), from 1905 under French protectorate.
    • Brakna confederation’s emirate
    • Emirate of Trarza: 15 December 1902 placed under French protectorate status.
  • {{Flagicon image|Merchant flag of French Morocco.svg}} Morocco – most of the sultanate was under French protectorate (30 March 1912 – 7 April 1956) although, in theory, it remained a sovereign state under the Treaty of Fez;BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=jrTsNTzcY7EC&pg=PA51, International Law: Achievements and Prospects, Mohammed, Bedjaoui, 1 January 1991, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 9231027166, Google Books, this{{which|date=August 2019}} fact was confirmed by the International Court of Justice in 1952.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=esfISSxc13cC&pg=PA453, Repertory of Decisions of the International Court of Justice (1947–1992), Giuliana Ziccardi, Capaldo, 1 January 1995, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 0792329937, Google Books,
  • Traditional Madagascar States
  • {{Flagicon|Kingdom of Tunisia}} Tunisia (12 May 1881 – 20 March 1956): became a French protectorate by treaty

Americas

Asia

(File:1 Sapèque - Protectorate of Tonkin (1905) 02.jpg|thumb|1 Sapèque – Protectorate of Tonkin (1905))
  • French Indochina until 1953/54:
    • {{Flagicon image|Flag of Colonial Annam.svg}} Annam and Tonkin 6 June 1884
    • {{Flagicon image|Flag of Cambodia under French protection.svg}} Cambodia 11 August 1863
    • {{Flagicon image|Flag of French Laos.svg}} Laos 3 October 1893
    • {{Flagicon image|Flag of Central Vietnam (1885-1890).svg}} Vietnam 6 June 1884

Europe

  • {{Flagicon|North Rhine-Westphalia}} Rhenish Republic (1923–1924)
  • {{Flagicon|Saar Protectorate}} Saar Protectorate (1946–1956), not colonial or amical, but a former part of Germany that would by referendum return to it, in fact a re-edition of a former League of Nations mandate. Most French protectorates were colonial.

Oceania

  • {{Flagicon|French Polynesia}} French Polynesia, mainly the Society Islands (several others were immediately annexed).C. W. Newbury. Aspects of French Policy in the Pacific, 1853–1906. The Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 27, No. 1 (Feb., 1958), pp. 45–56 All eventually were annexed by 1889.
    • Otaheiti (native king styled Ari`i rahi) becomes a French protectorate known as Tahiti, 1842–1880
    • Raiatea and Tahaa (after temporary annexation by Otaheiti; (title Ari`i) a French protectorate, 1880)
    • Mangareva (one of the Gambier Islands; ruler title `Akariki) a French protectorate, 16 February 1844 (unratified) and 30 November 1871THESIS, Gonschor, Lorenz Rudolf, Law as a Tool of Oppression and Liberation: Institutional Histories and Perspectives on Political Independence in HawaiÊ»i, Tahiti Nui/French Polynesia and Rapa Nui, Honolulu, University of Hawaii at Manoa, August 2008, 10125/20375, 56–59, Thesis,
  • {{Flagicon image|Flag of Wallis and Futuna.svg}} Wallis and Futuna:
    • {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Uvea.svg}} Wallis declared to be a French protectorate by King of Uvea and Captain Mallet, 4 November 1842. Officially in a treaty becomes a French protectorate, 5 April 1887.
    • {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Sigave.svg}} Sigave and {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Alo.svg}} Alo on the islands of Futuna and Alofi signed a treaty establishing a French protectorate on 16 February 1888.

Germany’s protectorates and protected states

{{see also|List of former German colonies}}File:5000 Kronen BM1944.jpg|thumb|200px|5000 – Protectorate of Bohemia and MoraviaProtectorate of Bohemia and MoraviaThe German Empire used the word , literally protectorate, for all of its colonial possessions until they were lost during World War I, regardless of the actual level of government control. Cases involving indirect rule included: Before and during World War II, Nazi Germany designated the rump of occupied Czechoslovakia and Denmark as protectorates:
  • {{Flagicon|Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia}} Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (1939–1945), however it was also considered a partially annexed territory of Germany
  • {{flagicon|Denmark}} Denmark (1940–1943)

India’s protectorates

  • {{Flagicon image|Flag of Bhutan.svg}} Bhutan (1947–2007).
  • {{Flagicon image|Flag of Sikkim (1914-1962).svg}} Kingdom of Sikkim (1950–1975), later acceded to India as State of Sikkim.{{sfnp|Hoffmann, Protectorates|1987|pp=336–339}}

Italy’s protectorates and protected states

  • {{flagicon image|Al-1918.svg|size=24px}} The Albanian Republic (1917–1920) and the {{Flagicon image|Flag of Albania (1939–1943).svg}} Albanian Kingdom (1939–1943)
  • {{Flagicon|Monaco}} Monaco under amical Protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia 20 November 1815 to 1860.
  • {{Flagicon image|Ethiopian Pennants.svg}} Ethiopia : 2 May 1889 Treaty of Wuchale, in the Italian language version, stated that Ethiopia was to become an Italian protectorate, while the Ethiopian Amharic language version merely stated that the Emperor could, if he so chose, go through Italy to conduct foreign affairs. When the differences in the versions came to light, Emperor Menelik II abrogated first the article in question (XVII), and later the whole treaty. The event culminated in the First Italo-Ethiopian War, in which Ethiopia was victorious and defended her sovereignty in 1896.
  • {{Flagicon image|Coat of arms of Italian Libya (1940–1943).svg}} Libya: on 15 October 1912 Italian protectorate declared over Cirenaica (Cyrenaica) until 17 May 1919.
  • {{Flagicon image|Banaadir_calan.gif}} Benadir Coast in Somalia: 3 August 1889 Italian protectorate (in the northeast; unoccupied until May 1893), until 16 March 1905 when it changed to {{Flagicon image|Italian_Somaliland_COA.svg}} Italian Somaliland.
    • {{Flagicon image|Majeerteen sultanate flag.jpg}} Majeerteen Sultanate since 7 April 1889 under Italian protectorate (renewed 7 April 1895), then in 1927 incorporated into the Italian colony.
    • {{Flagicon image|Majeerteen sultanate flag.jpg}} Sultanate of Hobyo since December 1888 under Italian protectorate (renewed 11 April 1895), then in October 1925 incorporated into the Italian colony (known as Obbia).

Japan’s protectorates

  • {{flagicon|Korea}} Korean Empire (1905–1910)
  • {{flagicon|Manchukuo}} Manchukuo (1932–1945)
  • {{flagicon|Mengjiang}} Mengjiang (1939–1945)

Poland’s protectorates

  • {{flagicon image|Flag_of_feodosia.svg|size=24px}} Kaffa (1462–1475)

Portugal’s protectorates

Russia’s and the Soviet Union’s protectorates and protected states

De facto“>

De facto

{{See also|Russian-occupied territories}}Some sources mention the following territories as de facto Russian protectorates:

Spain’s protectorates

  • {{flagicon image|Merchant flag of Spanish Morocco.svg}} Spanish Morocco protectorate from 27 November 1912 until 2 April 1958 (Northern zone until 7 April 1956, Southern zone (Cape Juby) until 2 April 1958).
  • {{flagicon image|Late_19th_Century_Flag_of_Sulu.svg|size=24px}} Sultanate of Sulu (1851–1899)

Turkey’s and the Ottoman Empire’s protectorates and protected states

  • {{flagicon|Aceh Sultanate}} Aceh Sultanate (1569–1903)
  • {{flagicon|Maldives}} Maldives (1560–1590)
  • {{flagicon image|Flag of the Cossack Hetmanat.svg}} Cossack Hetmanate (1669–1685)
De facto“>

De facto

United Nations’ protectorates

United States’ protectorates and protected states

After becoming independent nations in 1902 and 1903 respectively, Cuba and Panama became protectorates of the United States. In 1903, Cuba and the U.S. signed the Cuban–American Treaty of Relations, which affirmed the provisions of the Platt Amendment, including that the U.S. had the right to intervene in Cuba to preserve its independence, among other reasons (the Platt Amendment had also been integrated into the 1901 constitution of Cuba). Later that year, Panama and the U.S. signed the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty, which established the Panama Canal Zone and gave the U.S. the right to intervene in the cities of Panama and Colón (and the adjacent territories and harbors) for the maintenance of public order. The 1904 constitution of Panama, in Article 136, also gave the U.S. the right to intervene in any part of Panama “to reestablish public peace and constitutional order.” Haiti later also became a protectorate after the ratification of the Haitian–American Convention (which gave the U.S. the right to intervene in Haiti for a period of ten years, which was later expanded to twenty years through an additional agreement in 1917) on September 16, 1915.The United States also attempted to establish protectorates over the Dominican RepublicWEB,2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwi/108649.htm, Dominican Republic, 1916-1924, U.S. Department of State Archive, as well as other Central American nations such as Nicaragua through the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty. De facto“>

De facto

  • {{flagicon image|Flag_of_Negros_Republic.svg|size=24px}} Republic of Negros (1899–1901)JOURNAL, Aguilar, Filomeno V., The Republic of Negros, Philippine Studies, 2000, 48, 1, 26–52, 42634352,www.jstor.org/stable/42634352, 0031-7837,
  • {{flagicon image|Purported_flag_of_the_Republic_of_Zamboanga.svg|size=24px}} Republic of Zamboanga (1899–1903)
  • {{flagicon image|Late_19th_Century_Flag_of_Sulu.svg|size=24px}} Sultanate of Sulu (1899–1915)

Contemporary usage by the United States

Some agencies of the United States government, such as the Environmental Protection Agency, refer to the District of Columbia and insular areas of the United States—such as American Samoa and the U.S. Virgin Islands—as protectorates.NEWS, 12 March 2020, Notice of Finding of Failure To Submit State Plans for the Municipal Solid Waste Landfills Emission Guidelines, Environmental Protection Agency,www.federalregister.gov/documents/2020/03/12/2020-05079/notice-of-finding-of-failure-to-submit-state-plans-for-the-municipal-solid-waste-landfills-emission, However, the agency responsible for the administration of those areas, the Office of Insular Affairs (OIA) within the United States Department of Interior, uses only the term “insular area” rather than protectorate.

Joint protectorates

{{Further|Condominium (international law)}}

See also

Notes

{{notelist}}

References

{{Reflist|30em}}

Bibliography

  • JOURNAL, Hoffmann, Gerhard, Protectorates, Encyclopedia of Disputes Installment 10, 1987, 336–339,www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444862419500853, 24 October 2020, Elsevier, 10.1016/B978-0-444-86241-9.50085-3, 9780444862419, {{sfnref, Hoffmann, Protectorates, 1987, }}
  • {{citation |last=Meijknecht |first=Anna |title=Towards International Personality: The Position of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples in International Law |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3NnYzUWxtoC&pg=PA42 |year=2001 |publisher=Intersentia NV |isbn=978-90-5095-166-1 |ref={{sfnref|Meijknecht, Towards International Personality|2001}}}}
  • {{citation |first=James |last=Onley |title=The Raj Reconsidered: British India’s Informal Empire and Spheres of Influence in Asia and Africa |journal=Asian Affairs |volume=11 |number=1 |date=March 2009 |url=https://socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/iais/downloads/Onley_Raj_Reconsidered.pdf |ref={{sfnref|Onley, The Raj Reconsidered|2009}} |access-date=2020-12-24 |archive-date=2022-10-09 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/iais/downloads/Onley_Raj_Reconsidered.pdf |url-status=dead }}
  • {{citation |last=Reisman |first=W. |title=Reflections on state responsibility for violations of explicit protectorate, mandate, and trusteeship obligations |journal=Michigan Journal of International Law |volume=10 |number=1 |year=1989 |pages=231–240 |ref={{sfnref|Reisman, Relections on state responsibility|1989}}}}
  • {{citation |last=Willigen |first=Niels van |title=Peacebuilding and International Administration: The Cases of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UsLN-YFLKRUC&pg=PA16 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-11718-5 |ref={{sfnref|Willigen, Peacebuilding and International Administration|2013}}}}
  • BOOK, Larousse, Pierre, Paul Augé, Paul Augé, Claude Augé, Claude Augé, Nouveau Petit Larousse Illustré: Dictionnaire Encyclopédique, 1925, Larousse, fr,
{{colonial Empires}}{{Terms for types of administrative territorial entities}}{{Autonomous types of first-tier administration}}{{Authority control}}

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