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logical disjunction
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{{Short description|Logical connective OR}}{{Redirect|Disjunction|the logic gate|OR gate|separation of chromosomes|Meiosis|disjunctions in distribution|Disjunct distribution}}{{Redirect|Logical OR|the similarly looking doubled vertical bar notation in engineering and network theory|parallel addition (operator)}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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Inclusive and exclusive disjunction
Because the logical "or" means a disjunction formula is true when either one or both of its parts are true, it is referred to as an inclusive disjunction. This is in contrast with an exclusive disjunction, which is true when one or the other of the arguments are true, but not both (referred to as "exclusive or", or "XOR").When it is necessary to clarify whether inclusive or exclusive "or" is intended, English speakers sometimes uses the phrase "and/or". In terms of logic, this phrase is identical to "or", but makes the inclusion of both being true explicit.Notation
In logic and related fields, disjunction is customarily notated with an infix operator lor (Unicode {{unichar|2228|Logical Or}}). Alternative notations include +, used mainly in electronics, as well as vert and vert!vert in many programming languages. The English word "or" is sometimes used as well, often in capital letters. In Jan Åukasiewicz's prefix notation for logic, the operator is A, short for Polish alternatywa (English: alternative).Józef Maria BocheÅski (1959), A Précis of Mathematical Logic, translated by Otto Bird from the French and German editions, Dordrecht, North Holland: D. Reidel, passim.Classical disjunction
Semantics
In the semantics of logic, classical disjunction is a truth functional operation which returns the truth value "true" unless both of its arguments are "false". Its semantic entry is standardly given as follows:For the sake of generality across classical systems, this entry suppresses the parameters of evaluation. The "double turnstile" symbol models here is intended to mean "semantically entails".
models phi lor psi if models phi or models psi or both
Defined by other operators
In classical logic systems where logical disjunction is not a primitive, it can be defined in terms of the primitive "and" (land) and "not" (lnot) as:
A lor B = neg ((neg A) land (neg B)).
Alternatively, it may be defined in terms of "implies" (to) and "not" as:BOOK
, Walicki
, MichaÅ
,
, 2016
, Introduction to Mathematical Logic
,weblink
, WORLD SCIENTIFIC
, 150
, 10.1142/9783
, 978-9814343879
, , MichaÅ
,
, 2016
, Introduction to Mathematical Logic
,weblink
, WORLD SCIENTIFIC
, 150
, 10.1142/9783
, 978-9814343879
A lor B = (lnot A) to B.
The latter can be checked by the following truth table:{{2-ary truth table1 | 0|neg A|thick | 1 |
1|neg A rightarrow B| | 1 |
1|A or B}}It may also be defined solely in terms of to:
A lor B = (A to B) to B.
It can be checked by the following truth table:{{2-ary truth table |
1 | 1|A rightarrow B|thick | 1 |
1|(A rightarrow B) rightarrow B| | 1 |
1|A or B}}PropertiesThe following properties apply to disjunction:
(a lor (b land c)) equiv ((a lor b) land (a lor c))
(a lor (b lor c)) equiv ((a lor b) lor (a lor c))
(a lor (b equiv c)) equiv ((a lor b) equiv (a lor c))
(a rightarrow b) rightarrow ((a lor c) rightarrow (b lor c))
Applications in computer science{{Expand section|date=February 2021}}File:Or-gate-en.svg|thumb|150px|OR logic gatelogic gateOperators corresponding to logical disjunction exist in most programming languages.Bitwise operationDisjunction is often used for bitwise operations. Examples:
Logical operationMany languages distinguish between bitwise and logical disjunction by providing two distinct operators; in languages following C, bitwise disjunction is performed with the single pipe operator (|), and logical disjunction with the double pipe (||) operator.Logical disjunction is usually short-circuited; that is, if the first (left) operand evaluates to true, then the second (right) operand is not evaluated. The logical disjunction operator thus usually constitutes a sequence point.{{anchor|parallel-or}}In a parallel (concurrent) language, it is possible to short-circuit both sides: they are evaluated in parallel, and if one terminates with value true, the other is interrupted. This operator is thus called the parallel or.Although the type of a logical disjunction expression is boolean in most languages (and thus can only have the value true or false), in some languages (such as Python and JavaScript), the logical disjunction operator returns one of its operands: the first operand if it evaluates to a true value, and the second operand otherwise.WEB, Python 3.12.1 Documentation - The Python Language Reference - 6.11 Boolean operations,weblink 25 Dec 2023, WEB, JavaScript References - Expressions & Operators - Logical AND (&&), 25 September 2023,weblink 25 Dec 2023,Constructive disjunctionThe CurryâHoward correspondence relates a constructivist form of disjunction to tagged union types.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}JOURNAL, Context-Free Language Theory Formalization, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, 6, 1505.00061, Marcus VinÃcius Midena Ramos, de Queiroz, Ruy J. G. B., 2015,Set theory{{Expand section|date=February 2021}}The membership of an element of a union set in set theory is defined in terms of a logical disjunction: xin Acup BLeftrightarrow (xin A)vee(xin B). Because of this, logical disjunction satisfies many of the same identities as set-theoretic union, such as associativity, commutativity, distributivity, and de Morgan's laws, identifying logical conjunction with set intersection, logical negation with set complement.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}Natural languageDisjunction in natural languages does not precisely match the interpretation of lor in classical logic. Notably, classical disjunction is inclusive while natural language disjunction is often understood exclusively, as the following English typically would be.
* Mary is eating an apple or a pear.
This inference has sometimes been understood as an entailment, for instance by Alfred Tarski, who suggested that natural language disjunction is ambiguous between a classical and a nonclassical interpretation. More recent work in pragmatics has shown that this inference can be derived as a conversational implicature on the basis of a semantic denotation which behaves classically. However, disjunctive constructions including Hungarian vagy... vagy and French soit... soit have been argued to be inherently exclusive, rendering ungrammaticality in contexts where an inclusive reading would otherwise be forced.Similar deviations from classical logic have been noted in cases such as free choice disjunction and simplification of disjunctive antecedents, where certain modal operators trigger a conjunction-like interpretation of disjunction. As with exclusivity, these inferences have been analyzed both as implicatures and as entailments arising from a nonclassical interpretation of disjunction.
* You can have an apple or a pear. In many languages, disjunctive expressions play a role in question formation. For instance, while the following English example can be interpreted as a polar question asking whether it's true that Mary is either a philosopher or a linguist, it can also be interpreted as an alternative question asking which of the two professions is hers. The role of disjunction in these cases has been analyzed using nonclassical logics such as alternative semantics and inquisitive semantics, which have also been adopted to explain the free choice and simplification inferences.
rightsquigarrow You can have an apple and you can have a pear (but you can't have both)
* Is Mary a philosopher or a linguist?
In English, as in many other languages, disjunction is expressed by a coordinating conjunction. Other languages express disjunctive meanings in a variety of ways, though it is unknown whether disjunction itself is a linguistic universal. In many languages such as Dyirbal and Maricopa, disjunction is marked using a verb suffix. For instance, in the Maricopa example below, disjunction is marked by the suffix Å¡aa.{{interlinear|| lang=mrc|indent=3|ablist=INFER:inferential | |John-NOM Bill-NOM 3-come-PL-FUT-INFER|'John or Bill will come.'}}See also{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
Notes
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