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factoids

KAPLAN >FIRST1=AM FIRST2=CM JOURNAL=BMJ CASE REPORTS VOLUME=14 PAGES=E243454 PMID=34285029 LAST2=MERCKELBACH LAST3=KATER LAST4=SLUIS TITLE=WHY DISSOCIATION AND SCHIZOTYPY OVERLAP: THE JOINT INFLUENCE OF FANTASY PRONENESS, COGNITIVE FAILURES, AND CHILDHOOD TRAUMA DATE=OCTOBER 2007 ISSUE=10 DOI=10.1097/NMD.0B013E3181568137 S2CID=45086235 ACCESS-DATE=5 MARCH 2023, 0022-3018, | complications = Schizophrenia, substance use disorder, major depressive disorder| onset = 10–20 years old| duration = chronic| types = | causes = Genetics; childhood neglect; childhood abuseFamily history (medicine)>Family history| diagnosis = Based on symptomsCluster A personality disorders, borderline personality disorder, avoidant personality disorder, autism spectrum disorder, social anxiety disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder predominantly inattentive>ADHD-PI (ADD), dissociative identity disorderGHORBALI >FIRST1=AKRAM FIRST2=MOHAMMAD FIRST3=MOHAMMAD TITLE=RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISSOCIATIVE EXPERIENCES AND SCHIZOTYPAL PERSONALITY TRAITS: MEDIATING ROLE OF INFERENTIAL CONFUSION VOLUME=17 PAGES=52–60 PMC=8994835, 35480133, JOURNAL, Kaplan, AM, Smith, CM, Schizotypal personality disorder disguised as dissociative identity disorder., BMJ Case Reports, 20 July 2021, 14, 7, e243454, 10.1136/bcr-2021-243454, 34285029, 8292736, JOURNAL, Giesbrecht, Timo, Merckelbach, Harald, Kater, Maartje, Sluis, Anne Fetsje, Why dissociation and schizotypy overlap: the joint influence of fantasy proneness, cognitive failures, and childhood trauma, The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, October 2007, 195, 10, 812–818, 10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181568137, 18043521, 45086235,pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18043521/, 5 March 2023, 0022-3018, | prevention = | treatment = Cognitive-behavioral therapy, Metacognitive therapy, Cognitive remediation therapy| medication = Antipsychotics, Antidepressants| prognosis = Typically poor, although significant improvements can be made| frequency = Estimated 3% of general population| image = | alt = | caption = }}{{Distinguish|Semantic pragmatic disorder|Schizotypy|Schizoid personality disorder|Schizoaffective disorder}}Schizotypal personality disorder (StPD or SPD), also known as schizotypal disorder, is a cluster A personality disorder.WEB, Norman Sartorius, The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines,apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/37958/9241544228_eng.pdf?sequence=8, 23 June 2021, www.who.int, World Health Organization, 77, 83–4, bluebook.doc, Sartorius N, Henderson A, Strotzka H, Lipowski Z, Yu-cun S, You-xin X, Strömgren E, Glatzel J, Kühne G, Misès R, Soldatos C, Pull C, Giel R, Jegede R, Malt U, Nadzharov R, Smulevitch A, Hagberg B, Perris C, Scharfetter C, Clare A, Cooper J, Corbett J, Griffith Edwards J, Gelder M, Goldberg D, Gossop M, Graham P, Kendell R, Marks I, Russell G, Rutter M, Shepherd M, West D, Wing J, Wing L, Neki J, Benson F, Cantwell D, Guze S, Helzer J, Holzman P, Kleinman A, Kupfer D, Mezzich J, Spitzer R, Lokar J, JOURNAL, Rosell DR, Futterman SE, McMaster A, Siever LJ, Schizotypal personality disorder: a current review, Current Psychiatry Reports, 16, 7, 452, July 2014, 24828284, 4182925, 10.1007/s11920-014-0452-1, The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) classification describes the disorder specifically as a personality disorder characterized by thought disorder, paranoia, a characteristic form of social anxiety, derealization, transient psychosis, and unconventional beliefs. People with this disorder feel pronounced discomfort in forming and maintaining social connections with other people, primarily due to the belief that other people harbor negative thoughts and views about them.BOOK, Psychology, Schacter DL, Gilbert DT, Wegner DM, 2010, Worth Publishers, Peculiar speech mannerisms and socially unexpected modes of dress are also characteristic. Schizotypal people may react oddly in conversations, not respond, or talk to themselves. They frequently interpret situations as being strange or having unusual meanings for them; paranormal and superstitious beliefs are common. Schizotypal people usually disagree with the suggestion that their thoughts and behaviors are a ‘disorder’ and seek medical attention for depression or anxiety instead. Schizotypal personality disorder occurs in approximately 3% of the general population and is more commonly diagnosed in males.JOURNAL, Pulay AJ, Stinson FS, Dawson DA, Goldstein RB, Chou SP, Huang B, Saha TD, Smith SM, Pickering RP, Ruan WJ, Hasin DS, Grant BF, Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV schizotypal personality disorder: results from the wave 2 national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions, Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 11, 2, 53–67, 2009, 19617934, 2707116, 10.4088/PCC.08m00679,

History

StPD was introduced in 1980 in the DSM-III.JOURNAL, Rosell, Futterman, McMaster, Siever, July 16, 2014, Schizotypal Personality Disorder: A Current Review, Current Psychiatry Reports, 16, 7, 452, 10.1007/s11920-014-0452-1, 24828284, 4182925, Its inclusion provided a new classification for schizophrenia-spectrum disorders and of personality disorders that were previously unspecified.JOURNAL, Spitzer, Endicott, 1979, Justification for Separating Schizotypal and Borderline Personality Disorders,academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article/5/1/95/1943773, 2023-04-10, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 5, 1, 95–104, 10.1093/schbul/5.1.95, 441693, free, Its diagnosis was developed through differentiating the classifications of borderline personality disorder, of which some of the diagnosed population demonstrated schizophrenia-spectrum traits. When the separation of borderline personality disorder and StPD was originally suggested by Spitzer and Endicott, Siever and Gunderson opposed the distinction.WEB, APA PsycNet,psycnet.apa.org/record/1984-12429-001, 2023-04-10, psycnet.apa.org, en, Siever and Gunderson’s opposition to Spitzer and Endicott was that StPD was related to schizophrenia.JOURNAL, Siever, Larry J., Bernstein, David P., Silverman, Jeremy M., 31 Jan 2011, Schizotypal Personality Disorder: A Review of Its Current Status,guilfordjournals.com/doi/10.1521/pedi.1991.5.2.178, Journal of Personality Disorders, en, 5, 2, 178–193, 10.1521/pedi.1991.5.2.178, 0885-579X, Spitzer and Endicott stated “We believe, as do the authors, that the evidence for the genetic relationship between Schizotypal features and Chronic Schizophrenia is suggestive rather than proven”. StPD was included in the DSM-IV and the DSM-V and saw little change in its diagnosis.{{Personality disorders sidebar}}

Epidemiology

The reported prevalence of StPD in community studies ranges from 1.37% in a Norwegian sample, to 4.6% in an American sample. A large American study found a lifetime prevalence of 3.9%, with somewhat higher rates among men (4.2%) than women (3.7%). It may be uncommon in clinical populations, with reported rates of up to 1.9%. It has been estimated to be prevalent among up to 5.2% of the general population. Together with other cluster A personality disorders, it is also very common among homeless people who show up at drop-in centers, according to a 2008 New York study. The study did not address homeless people who do not show up at drop-in centers.JOURNAL, Connolly AJ, Cobb-Richardson P, Ball SA, Personality disorders in homeless drop-in center clients, Journal of Personality Disorders, 22, 6, 573–588, December 2008, 19072678, 10.1521/pedi.2008.22.6.573,www.ncsinc.org/images/pdfs/JPD_article_winter_2008.pdf, dead,www.ncsinc.org/images/pdfs/JPD_article_winter_2008.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20090617134208www.ncsinc.org/images/pdfs/JPD_article_winter_2008.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20090617134208www.ncsinc.org/images/pdfs/JPD_article_winter_2008.pdf, 2009-06-17, Schizotypal disorder may be overdiagnosed in Russia and other post-Soviet states.Быкова А. Ю., Беккер Р. А., Быков Ю. В. О трудностях дифференциальной диагностики между первичным деперсонализационно-дереализационным расстройством и шизотипическим расстройством // Siberian Journal of Life Sciences & Agriculture. — 2022. — Т. 14. — №. 1.

Prognosis

People with StPD usually had symptoms of schizotypal personality disorder in childhood.JOURNAL, Jones HP, Testa RR, Ross N, Seal ML, Pantelis C, Tonge B, The Melbourne assessment of Schizotypy in kids: a useful measure of childhood schizotypal personality disorder, BioMed Research International, 2015, 635732, 2015-01-06, 25629050, 10.1155/2015/635732, 4300034, free, Traits of StPD usually remain consistently present over time,JOURNAL, Shea MT, Stout R, Gunderson J, Morey LC, Grilo CM, McGlashan T, Skodol AE, Dolan-Sewell R, Dyck I, Zanarini MC, Keller MB, Short-term diagnostic stability of schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 12, 2036–2041, December 2002, 12450953, 10.1176/appi.ajp.159.12.2036, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Alphen SP, Heijnen-Kohl SM, 2019-01-25, Personality Disorders in Later Life, Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology, en, 10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.420, 978-0-19-023655-7, although can fluctuate greatly in severity and stability.JOURNAL, Grilo CM, Sanislow CA, Gunderson JG, Pagano ME, Yen S, Zanarini MC, Shea MT, Skodol AE, Stout RL, Morey LC, McGlashan TH, Two-year stability and change of schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 5, 767–775, October 2004, 15482035, 3289406, 10.1037/0022-006X.72.5.767, JOURNAL, McGlashan TH, Grilo CM, Sanislow CA, Ralevski E, Morey LC, Gunderson JG, Skodol AE, Shea MT, Zanarini MC, Bender D, Stout RL, Yen S, Pagano M, Two-year prevalence and stability of individual DSM-IV criteria for schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders: toward a hybrid model of axis II disorders, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 5, 883–889, May 2005, 15863789, 10.1176/appi.ajp.162.5.883, 3272783, DSM characterizes StPD as having nine major symptoms: ideas of reference, odd/magical beliefs, social anxiety, not having close friends, odd or eccentric behavior, odd speech, unusual perceptions, suspiciousness, schizo-obsessive behaviorsJOURNAL, Baer, Lee, 1986-03-01, Coexistent Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Schizotypal Personality Disorder: A Poor Prognostic Indicator,archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/archpsyc.1986.01800030114016, Archives of General Psychiatry, en, 43, 3, 296, 10.1001/archpsyc.1986.01800030114016, 3954553, 0003-990X, and constricted affect.JOURNAL, Xi, Chongqin, Cai, Yan, Peng, Siwei, Lian, Jie, Tu, Dongbo, 2019-12-05, A diagnostic classification version of Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire using diagnostic classification models, International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 29, 1, e1807, 10.1002/mpr.1807, 1049-8931, 7051843, 31808226, There may be gender differences in the symptomology of men and women with StPD.JOURNAL, Dickey CC, McCarley RW, Voglmaier MM, Niznikiewicz MA, Seidman LJ, Demeo S, Frumin M, Shenton ME, An MRI study of superior temporal gyrus volume in women with schizotypal personality disorder, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 12, 2198–2201, December 2003, 14638590, 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.12.2198, 2826718, Women with the disorder might be more likely to have less severe cognitive deficits, and more severe social anxiety and magical thinking.JOURNAL, Voglmaier MM, Seidman LJ, Niznikiewicz MA, Dickey CC, Shenton ME, McCarley RW, A comparative profile analysis of neuropsychological function in men and women with schizotypal personality disorder, Schizophrenia Research, 74, 1, 43–49, April 2005, 15694753, 10.1016/j.schres.2004.09.013, 2772126, 17916499,nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:33766569, JOURNAL, Voglmaier MM, Seidman LJ, Niznikiewicz MA, Madan A, Dickey CC, Shenton ME, McCarley RW, Dichotic listening in schizotypal personality disorder: evidence for gender and laterality effects, Schizophrenia Research, 115, 2–3, 290–292, December 2009, 19464150, 10.1016/j.schres.2009.04.028, 3879145, 20730801,nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:28549217, JOURNAL, Bora E, Baysan Arabaci L, Effect of age and gender on schizotypal personality traits in the normal population, Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 63, 5, 663–669, October 2009, 19674380, 10.1111/j.1440-1819.2009.02011.x, 22072954, free, People with StPD are more likely to only have a high school education, to be unemployed,JOURNAL, McClure MM, Harvey PD, Bowie CR, Iacoviello B, Siever LJ, Functional outcomes, functional capacity, and cognitive impairment in schizotypal personality disorder, Schizophrenia Research, 144, 1–3, 146–150, March 2013, 23375943, 10.1016/j.schres.2012.12.012, 3572293, and to have significant functional impairment.JOURNAL, Skodol AE, Gunderson JG, McGlashan TH, Dyck IR, Stout RL, Bender DS, Grilo CM, Shea MT, Zanarini MC, Morey LC, Sanislow CA, Oldham JM, Functional impairment in patients with schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, or obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 2, 276–283, February 2002, 11823271, 10.1176/appi.ajp.159.2.276, The two traits of StPD which are least likely to change are paranoia and abnormal experiences.Compared to those without StPD, adolescents with StPD spend more time socialising on the Internet, such as on forums, chat rooms and cooperative computer games, and spend less time socialising in “real life”.JOURNAL, Mittal, Vijay A., Tessner, Kevin D., Walker, Elaine F., 2007, Elevated social Internet use and schizotypal personality disorder in adolescents, Schizophrenia Research, en, 94, 1–3, 50–57, 10.1016/j.schres.2007.04.009, 2323598, 17532188,

Obsessive-compulsive disorder coexistence

People who are treatment resistant to obsessive–compulsive disorder behavioral therapy and medication that also display odd or eccentric behaviors could contribute to the coexistence of obsessive-compulsive disorder with schizotypal disorder.

Etiology

Genetic

People who have relatives with schizotypy,JOURNAL, Debbané M, Eliez S, Badoud D, Conus P, Flückiger R, Schultze-Lutter F, Developing psychosis and its risk states through the lens of schizotypy, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 41, Suppl 2, S396–S407, March 2015, 25548386, 4373628, 10.1093/schbul/sbu176, JOURNAL, Schultze-Lutter F, Nenadic I, Grant P, Psychosis and Schizophrenia-Spectrum Personality Disorders Require Early Detection on Different Symptom Dimensions, Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 476, 2019, 31354543, 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00476, 6637034, free, JOURNAL, Kemp KC, Bathery AJ, Barrantes-Vidal N, Kwapil TR, A brief questionnaire measure of multidimensional schizotypy predicts interview-rated symptoms and impairment, PLOS ONE, 15, 8, e0237614, 2020-08-10, 32776979, 7416934, 10.1371/journal.pone.0237614, 2020PLoSO..1537614K, free, mood disorders,JOURNAL, Squires-Wheeler E, Skodol AE, Bassett A, Erlenmeyer-Kimling L, DSM-III-R schizotypal personality traits in offspring of schizophrenic disorder, affective disorder, and normal control parents, Journal of Psychiatric Research, 23, 3–4, 229–239, 1989, 2635220, 3160972, 10.1016/0022-3956(89)90028-9, or other disorders on the schizophrenia spectrum are at a higher likelihood of developing StPD.JOURNAL, Tarbox SI, Pogue-Geile MF, A multivariate perspective on schizotypy and familial association with schizophrenia: a review, Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 7, 1169–1182, November 2011, 21855827, 10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.002, 3176972, JOURNAL, Torti MC, Buzzanca A, Squarcione C, Salerno C, Mirigliani A, Di Fabio F, Biondi M, Schizotypy and personality profiles of Cluster A in a group of schizophrenic patients and their siblings, BMC Psychiatry, 13, 1, 245, October 2013, 24094118, 3856523, 10.1186/1471-244X-13-245, free, Although environmental factors likely play an important role in the onset of the disorder. The COMT Val158Met polymorphism and its Val or Met allele are suspected to be associated with Schizotypal personality disorder.JOURNAL, Skilleter AJ, Weickert CS, Moustafa AA, Gendy R, Chan M, Arifin N, Mitchell PB, Weickert TW, BDNF val66met genotype and schizotypal personality traits interact to influence probabilistic association learning, Behavioural Brain Research, 274, 137–142, November 2014, 25125238, 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.07.041, 18041054, free, JOURNAL, Siever LJ, Endophenotypes in the personality disorders, Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 7, 2, 139–151, 2005, 16262209, 3181730, 10.31887/DCNS.2005.7.2/lsiever, JOURNAL, Docherty AR, Sponheim SR, Anhedonia as a phenotype for the Val158Met COMT polymorphism in relatives of patients with schizophrenia, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 4, 788–798, November 2008, 19025226, 2936689, 10.1037/a0013745, JOURNAL, Leung WW, McClure MM, Siever LJ, Barch DM, Harvey PD, Catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met genotype in healthy and personality disorder individuals: Preliminary results from an examination of cognitive tests hypothetically differentially sensitive to dopamine functions, English, Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 3, 6, 925–934, December 2007, 19300629, 10.2147/NDT.S1500, 2656336, 8816485, free, This is because these genes affect dopamine production in the brain.JOURNAL, Sheldrick AJ, Krug A, Markov V, Leube D, Michel TM, Zerres K, Eggermann T, Kircher T, Effect of COMT val158met genotype on cognition and personality, European Psychiatry, 23, 6, 385–389, September 2008, 18755576, 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2008.05.002, 45960144, JOURNAL, Steiner GZ, Fernandez FM, Coles M, Karamacoska D, Barkus E, Broyd SJ, Solowij N, Watson OT, Chiu CL, Lind JM, Barry RJ, Interrogating the Relationship Between Schizotypy, the Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) Val158Met Polymorphism, and Neuronal Oscillatory Activity, Cerebral Cortex, 29, 7, 3048–3058, July 2019, 30084963, 10.1093/cercor/bhy171, JOURNAL, Barnett JH, Jones PB, Robbins TW, Müller U, Effects of the catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met polymorphism on executive function: a meta-analysis of the Wisconsin Card Sort Test in schizophrenia and healthy controls, Molecular Psychiatry, 12, 5, 502–509, May 2007, 17325717, 10.1038/sj.mp.4001973, 764484, free, This is a neurochemical thought to be associated with schizotypal traits.JOURNAL, Silberschmidt AL, Sponheim SR, Personality in relation to genetic liability for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: differential associations with the COMT Val 108/158 Met polymorphism, Schizophrenia Research, 100, 1–3, 316–324, March 2008, 18201871, 10.1016/j.schres.2007.12.467, 2682527, JOURNAL, Giakoumaki SG, Roussos P, Bitsios P, Improvement of prepulse inhibition and executive function by the COMT inhibitor tolcapone depends on COMT Val158Met polymorphism, Neuropsychopharmacology, 33, 13, 3058–3068, December 2008, 18536698, 10.1038/npp.2008.82, 3130616, free, The gene may also contribute to decreased levels of gray matter in the prefrontal cortex.JOURNAL, Rodríguez-Toscano E, Martínez K, Fraguas D, Janssen J, Pina-Camacho L, Arias B, Vieta E, Mezquida G, Amoretti S, Bernardo M, Castro-Fornieles J, Cuesta-Zorita MJ, Lobo A, González-Pinto A, Collado IC, 2022-04-01, Prefrontal abnormalities, executive dysfunction and symptoms severity are modulated by COMT Val158Met polymorphism in first episode psychosis, Revista de Psiquiatría y Salud Mental, en, 15, 2, 74–87, 10.1016/j.rpsm.2021.11.002, 35840287, 244126716, 1888-9891, JOURNAL, Thermenos HW, Keshavan MS, Juelich RJ, Molokotos E, Whitfield-Gabrieli S, Brent BK, Makris N, Seidman LJ, A review of neuroimaging studies of young relatives of individuals with schizophrenia: a developmental perspective from schizotaxia to schizophrenia, American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 162B, 7, 604–635, October 2013, 24132894, 10.1002/ajmg.b.32170, 32797877, free, This may lead to impaired capacities for decision-making,JOURNAL, Roussos P, Giakoumaki SG, Rogdaki M, Pavlakis S, Frangou S, Bitsios P, Prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex depends on the catechol O-methyltransferase Val158Met gene polymorphism, Psychological Medicine, 38, 11, 1651–1658, November 2008, 18261249, 10.1017/S0033291708002912, 29311411, speech,JOURNAL, Krug A, Markov V, Sheldrick A, Krach S, Jansen A, Zerres K, Eggermann T, Stöcker T, Shah NJ, Kircher T, The effect of the COMT val(158)met polymorphism on neural correlates of semantic verbal fluency, European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 259, 8, 459–465, December 2009, 19381707, 10.1007/s00406-009-0010-8, 20321844, cognitive flexibility,JOURNAL, Nolan KA, Bilder RM, Lachman HM, Volavka J, Catechol O-methyltransferase Val158Met polymorphism in schizophrenia: differential effects of Val and Met alleles on cognitive stability and flexibility, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 2, 359–361, February 2004, 14754787, 10.1176/appi.ajp.161.2.359, and altered perceptual experiences.JOURNAL, Demily C, Louchart-de-la-Chapelle S, Nkam I, Ramoz N, Denise P, Nicolas A, Savalle C, Thibaut F, Does COMT val158met polymorphism influence P50 sensory gating, eye tracking or saccadic inhibition dysfunctions in schizophrenia?, Psychiatry Research, 246, 738–744, December 2016, 27825784, 10.1016/j.psychres.2016.07.066, 207452788, The rs1006737 polymorphism of the CACNA1C gene is also believed to have a part in schizotypal symptoms.JOURNAL, Krautheim JT, Straube B, Dannlowski U, Pyka M, Schneider-Hassloff H, Drexler R, Krug A, Sommer J, Rietschel M, Witt SH, Kircher T, Outgroup emotion processing in the vACC is modulated by childhood trauma and CACNA1C risk variant, Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 13, 3, 341–348, March 2018, 29385621, 5836282, 10.1093/scan/nsy004, It may lead to a significantly increased physiological response to stress through the cortisol awakening response in the brain.JOURNAL, Klaus K, Butler K, Gutierrez H, Durrant SJ, Pennington K, Interactive effects of early life stress and CACNA1C genotype on cortisol awakening response, Biological Psychology, 136, 22–28, July 2018, 29733866, 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.05.002, 13679165,eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/id/eprint/32007/2/Kristel_2018CACNA1C%20%28002%29.pdf, THESIS, Investigating Individual Differences in Acute Psychosocial Stress Reactivity and Evaluation of Wearable Devices for Heart Rate Variability Measurement,eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/id/eprint/48484/, University of Lincoln, 2021, mres, en, Youngs MA, JOURNAL, Weinstein DD, Diforio D, Schiffman J, Walker E, Bonsall R, Minor physical anomalies, dermatoglyphic asymmetries, and cortisol levels in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 4, 617–623, April 1999, 10200743, 10.1176/ajp.156.4.617, 9094296, JOURNAL, Pasparakis E, Koiliari E, Zouraraki C, Tsapakis EM, Roussos P, Giakoumaki SG, Bitsios P, The effects of the CACNA1C rs1006737 A/G on affective startle modulation in healthy males, European Psychiatry, 30, 4, 492–498, June 2015, 25841664, 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2015.03.004, 30938090, It may also negatively affect reward processing in the brain and lead to anhedonia or depression in patients.JOURNAL, Lancaster TM, Heerey EA, Mantripragada K, Linden DE, CACNA1C risk variant affects reward responsiveness in healthy individuals, Translational Psychiatry, 4, 10, e461, October 2014, 25290268, 10.1038/tp.2014.100, 4350510, 1654916, JOURNAL, Green EK, Grozeva D, Jones I, Jones L, Kirov G, Caesar S, Gordon-Smith K, Fraser C, Forty L, Russell E, Hamshere ML, Moskvina V, Nikolov I, Farmer A, McGuffin P, Holmans PA, Owen MJ, O’Donovan MC, Craddock N, The bipolar disorder risk allele at CACNA1C also confers risk of recurrent major depression and of schizophrenia, Molecular Psychiatry, 15, 10, 1016–1022, October 2010, 19621016, 10.1038/mp.2009.49, 3011210, 6297556, These factors possibly lead to the development of Schizotypal traits.JOURNAL, Roussos P, Bitsios P, Giakoumaki SG, McClure MM, Hazlett EA, New AS, Siever LJ, CACNA1C as a risk factor for schizotypal personality disorder and schizotypy in healthy individuals, Psychiatry Research, 206, 1, 122–123, March 2013, 22985546, 10.1016/j.psychres.2012.08.039, 4176879, The zinc-finger protein ZNF804A likely affects the levels of paranoia, anxiety, and ideas of reference in StPD.JOURNAL, Stefanis NC, Hatzimanolis A, Avramopoulos D, Smyrnis N, Evdokimidis I, Stefanis CN, Weinberger DR, Straub RE, Variation in psychosis gene ZNF804A is associated with a refined schizotypy phenotype but not neurocognitive performance in a large young male population, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 39, 6, 1252–1260, November 2013, 23155182, 3796069, 10.1093/schbul/sbs110, JOURNAL, Lencz T, Szeszko PR, DeRosse P, Burdick KE, Bromet EJ, Bilder RM, Malhotra AK, A schizophrenia risk gene, ZNF804A, influences neuroanatomical and neurocognitive phenotypes, Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 11, 2284–2291, October 2010, 20664580, 10.1038/npp.2010.102, 2939918, 19216888, JOURNAL, Yasuda Y, Hashimoto R, Ohi K, Fukumoto M, Umeda-Yano S, Yamamori H, Okochi T, Iwase M, Kazui H, Iwata N, Takeda M, Impact on schizotypal personality trait of a genome-wide supported psychosis variant of the ZNF804A gene, Neuroscience Letters, 495, 3, 216–220, May 2011, 21457757, 10.1016/j.neulet.2011.03.069, 45364708, This gene is also thought to negatively impact attention in people with StPD.JOURNAL, Del Re EC, Bergen SE, Mesholam-Gately RI, Niznikiewicz MA, Goldstein JM, Woo TU, Shenton ME, Seidman LJ, McCarley RW, Petryshen TL, Analysis of schizophrenia-related genes and electrophysiological measures reveals ZNF804A association with amplitude of P300b elicited by novel sounds, Translational Psychiatry, 4, 1, e346, January 2014, 24424392, 10.1038/tp.2013.117, 3905227, 16062551, It may lead to an increased level of white matter volume in the frontal lobe.JOURNAL, Wassink TH, Epping EA, Rudd D, Axelsen M, Ziebell S, Fleming FW, Monson E, Ho BC, Andreasen NC, Influence of ZNF804a on brain structure volumes and symptom severity in individuals with schizophrenia, Archives of General Psychiatry, 69, 9, 885–892, September 2012, 22945618, 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.2116, 3852666, Another gene, the NOTCH4 is thought to relate to Schizophrenia spectrum disorders.JOURNAL, Wassink TH, Nopoulos P, Pietila J, Crowe RR, Andreasen NC, NOTCH4 and the frontal lobe in schizophrenia, American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 118B, 1, 1–7, April 2003, 12627456, 10.1002/ajmg.b.10071, 23380937, free, JOURNAL, DiLalla LF, McCrary M, Diaz E, A review of endophenotypes in schizophrenia and autism: The next phase for understanding genetic etiologies, American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part C, Seminars in Medical Genetics, 175, 3, 354–361, September 2017, 28661580, 10.1002/ajmg.c.31566, 4441493, It can lead to disruptions in the occipital cortex, and therefore symptoms of schizotypy.JOURNAL, Xie X, Zu M, Zhang L, Bai T, Wei L, Huang W, Ji GJ, Qiu B, Hu P, Tian Y, Wang K, A common variant of the NOTCH4 gene modulates functional connectivity of the occipital cortex and its relationship with schizotypal traits, BMC Psychiatry, 20, 1, 363, July 2020, 32646407, 7346398, 10.1186/s12888-020-02773-z, free, The GLRA1 and the p250GAP genes are also potentially associated with StPD.JOURNAL, Bulbena-Cabre A, Bassir Nia A, Perez-Rodriguez MM, Current Knowledge on Gene-Environment Interactions in Personality Disorders: an Update, Current Psychiatry Reports, 20, 9, 74, August 2018, 30094700, 10.1007/s11920-018-0934-7, 51954090, JOURNAL, Köse SS, ErbaÅŸ O, 2020, Personality disorders diagnosis, causes, and treatments, Demiroglu Science University Florence Nightingale Journal of Transplantation, 5, 2, 022–031, 10.5606/dsufnjt.2020.013, 234447745, 2667-6680, free, JOURNAL, Ma G, Fan H, Shen C, Wang W, Genetic and Neuroimaging Features of Personality Disorders: State of the Art, Neuroscience Bulletin, 32, 3, 286–306, June 2016, 27037690, 5563771, 10.1007/s12264-016-0027-8, It may lead to abnormally low levels of Glutamic acids in the NDMA receptors, which impairs memory and learning.JOURNAL, Vora AK, Fisher AM, New AS, Hazlett EA, McNamara M, Yuan Q, Zhou Z, Hodgkinson C, Goldman D, Siever LJ, Roussos P, Perez-Rodriguez MM, Dimensional Traits of Schizotypy Associated With Glycine Receptor GLRA1 Polymorphism: An Exploratory Candidate-Gene Association Study, Journal of Personality Disorders, 32, 3, 421–432, June 2018, 28758885, 5856645, 10.1521/pedi_2017_31_303, JOURNAL, Ohi K, Hashimoto R, Nakazawa T, Okada T, Yasuda Y, Yamamori H, Fukumoto M, Umeda-Yano S, Iwase M, Kazui H, Yamamoto T, Kano M, Takeda M, The p250GAP gene is associated with risk for schizophrenia and schizotypal personality traits, PLOS ONE, 7, 4, e35696, 2012-04-18, 22530067, 3329470, 10.1371/journal.pone.0035696, 2012PLoSO...735696O, free, JOURNAL, Walter EE, Fernandez F, Snelling M, Barkus E, Genetic Consideration of Schizotypal Traits: A Review, Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1769, 2016, 27895608, 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01769, 5108787, free, JOURNAL, Lett TA, Voineskos AN, Kennedy JL, Levine B, Daskalakis ZJ, Treating working memory deficits in schizophrenia: a review of the neurobiology, English, Biological Psychiatry, 75, 5, 361–370, March 2014, 24011822, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.07.026, 23781971, free, StPD may stem from abnormalities in Chromosome 22.JOURNAL, Esterberg ML, Trotman HD, Brasfield JL, Compton MT, Walker EF, Childhood and current autistic features in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder, Schizophrenia Research, 104, 1–3, 265–273, September 2008, 18554872, 10.1016/j.schres.2008.04.029, 4416647, JOURNAL, Shapiro DI, Cubells JF, Ousley OY, Rockers K, Walker EF, Prodromal symptoms in adolescents with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome and schizotypal personality disorder, Schizophrenia Research, 129, 1, 20–28, June 2011, 21507614, 10.1016/j.schres.2011.03.030, 3100383, JOURNAL, Esposito CM, Enrico P, Sciortino D, Caletti E, Marchetti GB, Cesaretti C, Oldani L, Fiorentini A, Brambilla P, Case Report: The Association Between Chromosomal Anomalies and Cluster A Personality Disorders: The Case of Two Siblings With 16p11.2 Deletion and a Review of the Literature, Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 689359, 2021, 34168584, 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.689359, 8217436, free,

Neurological

Exposure to influenza during week 23 of gestation is associated with a higher likelihood of developing StPD. Poor nutrition in childhood may also contribute to the onset of StPD by altering the course of brain development.JOURNAL, Venables PH, Raine A, Poor nutrition at age 3 and schizotypal personality at age 23: the mediating role of age 11 cognitive functioning, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 8, 822–830, August 2012, 22772085, 10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.11081173, Numerous areas of the brain are thought to be associated with StPD. Higher levels of dopamine in the brain,JOURNAL, Howes OD, Bose SK, Turkheimer F, Valli I, Egerton A, Valmaggia LR, Murray RM, McGuire P, Dopamine synthesis capacity before onset of psychosis: a prospective [18F]-DOPA PET imaging study, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 12, 1311–1317, December 2011, 21768612, 10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11010160, 3682447, JOURNAL, Woodward ND, Cowan RL, Park S, Ansari MS, Baldwin RM, Li R, Doop M, Kessler RM, Zald DH, Correlation of individual differences in schizotypal personality traits with amphetamine-induced dopamine release in striatal and extrastriatal brain regions, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 4, 418–426, April 2011, 21159728, 3770457, 10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10020165, possibly specifically the D1 receptor,JOURNAL, Pekcec A, Schülert N, Stierstorfer B, Deiana S, Dorner-Ciossek C, Rosenbrock H, Targeting the dopamine D1 receptor or its downstream signalling by inhibiting phosphodiesterase-1 improves cognitive performance, British Journal of Pharmacology, 175, 14, 3021–3033, July 2018, 29726015, 6016630, 10.1111/bph.14350, JOURNAL, Chemerinski E, Siever LJ, Koenigsberg HW, 2005-12-01, Dopamine regulation in schizotypal personality disorder and psychosis, Current Psychosis & Therapeutics Reports, en, 3, 4, 162–168, 10.1007/BF02629449, 144051452, 1545-8091, SpringerLink, JOURNAL, Goldman-Rakic PS, Castner SA, Svensson TH, Siever LJ, Williams GV, Targeting the dopamine D1 receptor in schizophrenia: insights for cognitive dysfunction, Psychopharmacology, 174, 1, 3–16, June 2004, 15118803, 10.1007/s00213-004-1793-y, 25015952, might contribute to the development of StPD. StPD is associated with heightened dopaminergic activity in the striatum.JOURNAL, Kirschner M, Hager OM, Muff L, Bischof M, Hartmann-Riemer MN, Kluge A, Habermeyer B, Seifritz E, Tobler PN, Kaiser S, Ventral Striatal Dysfunction and Symptom Expression in Individuals With Schizotypal Personality Traits and Early Psychosis, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 44, 1, 147–157, January 2018, 27798223, 5767950, 10.1093/schbul/sbw142, JOURNAL, Waltmann M, O’Daly O, Egerton A, McMullen K, Kumari V, Barker GJ, Williams SC, Modinos G, Multi-echo fMRI, resting-state connectivity, and high psychometric schizotypy, NeuroImage. Clinical, 21, 101603, 2019-01-01, 30503214, 10.1016/j.nicl.2018.11.013, 6413302, 53873865, JOURNAL, Siever LJ, Davis KL, 2004-03-01, The Pathophysiology of Schizophrenia Disorders: Perspectives From the Spectrum,ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.3.398?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed, American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 3, 398–413, en, 10.1176/appi.ajp.161.3.398, 14992962, JOURNAL, Rössler J, Unterassner L, Wyss T, Haker H, Brugger P, Rössler W, Wotruba D, Schizotypal Traits are Linked to Dopamine-Induced Striato-Cortical Decoupling: A Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Study, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 45, 3, 680–688, April 2019, 29878280, 6483584, 10.1093/schbul/sby079, Their symptoms may also stem from higher presynaptic dopamine release.JOURNAL, Miyake N, Thompson J, Skinbjerg M, Abi-Dargham A, Presynaptic dopamine in schizophrenia, CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 17, 2, 104–109, April 2011, 21199451, 6493810, 10.1111/j.1755-5949.2010.00230.x, JOURNAL, Fervaha G, Remington G, Neuroimaging findings in schizotypal personality disorder: a systematic review, Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 43, 96–107, June 2013, 23220094, 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.11.014, 25236324, JOURNAL, Howes OD, Bose SK, Turkheimer F, Valli I, Egerton A, Valmaggia LR, Murray RM, McGuire P, Dopamine synthesis capacity before onset of psychosis: a prospective [18F]-DOPA PET imaging study, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 12, 1311–1317, December 2011, 21768612, 3682447, 10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11010160, JOURNAL, Egerton A, Chaddock CA, Winton-Brown TT, Bloomfield MA, Bhattacharyya S, Allen P, McGuire PK, Howes OD, Presynaptic striatal dopamine dysfunction in people at ultra-high risk for psychosis: findings in a second cohort, Biological Psychiatry, 74, 2, 106–112, July 2013, 23312565, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.11.017, Corticostriatal Networks, Psychopathology, and Treatment, 25232879, People with StPD may also have decreased volumes of grey or white matter in their caudate nucleus,JOURNAL, Levitt JJ, Westin CF, Nestor PG, Estepar RS, Dickey CC, Voglmaier MM, Seidman LJ, Kikinis R, Jolesz FA, McCarley RW, Shenton ME, Shape of caudate nucleus and its cognitive correlates in neuroleptic-naive schizotypal personality disorder, English, Biological Psychiatry, 55, 2, 177–184, January 2004, 14732598, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.08.005, 2793335, JOURNAL, Haidar H, Bouix S, Levitt JJ, McCarley RW, Shenton ME, Soul JS, Characterizing the shape of anatomical structures with Poisson’s equation, IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging, 25, 10, 1249–1257, October 2006, 17024829, 10.1109/TMI.2006.881378, 2785042, which leads to difficulties in speech.CONFERENCE, Niethammer M, Reuter M, Wolter FE, Bouix S, Peinecke N, Koo MS, Shenton ME, Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted Intervention – MICCAI 2007, Global Medical Shape Analysis Using the Laplace-Beltrami Spectrum, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 4791, Pt 1, 850–857, 2007, 18051138, 2782516, 10.1007/978-3-540-75757-3_103, 978-3-540-75756-6, JOURNAL, Koo MS, Levitt JJ, McCarley RW, Seidman LJ, Dickey CC, Niznikiewicz MA, Voglmaier MM, Zamani P, Long KR, Kim SS, Shenton ME, Reduction of caudate nucleus volumes in neuroleptic-naïve female subjects with schizotypal personality disorder, Biological Psychiatry, 60, 1, 40–48, July 2006, 16460694, 2768064, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.09.028, JOURNAL, Levitt JJ, Styner M, Niethammer M, Bouix S, Koo MS, Voglmaier MM, Dickey CC, Niznikiewicz MA, Kikinis R, McCarley RW, Shenton ME, Shape abnormalities of caudate nucleus in schizotypal personality disorder, Schizophrenia Research, 110, 1–3, 127–139, May 2009, 19328654, 10.1016/j.schres.2008.11.012, 2756791, JOURNAL, Levitt JJ, McCarley RW, Dickey CC, Voglmaier MM, Niznikiewicz MA, Seidman LJ, Hirayasu Y, Ciszewski AA, Kikinis R, Jolesz FA, Shenton ME, MRI study of caudate nucleus volume and its cognitive correlates in neuroleptic-naive patients with schizotypal personality disorder, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 7, 1190–1197, July 2002, 12091198, 10.1176/appi.ajp.159.7.1190, 2826363, People with StPD likely have a reduced volume in their temporal lobes,JOURNAL, Dickey CC, McCarley RW, Voglmaier MM, Niznikiewicz MA, Seidman LJ, Hirayasu Y, Fischer I, Teh EK, Van Rhoads R, Jakab M, Kikinis R, Jolesz FA, Shenton ME, Schizotypal personality disorder and MRI abnormalities of temporal lobe gray matter, English, Biological Psychiatry, 45, 11, 1393–1402, June 1999, 10356620, 10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00030-X, 2832794, 9398471,nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:28501043, JOURNAL, Zhu Y, Tang Y, Zhang T, Li H, Tang Y, Li C, Luo X, He Y, Lu Z, Wang J, Reduced functional connectivity between bilateral precuneus and contralateral parahippocampus in schizotypal personality disorder, BMC Psychiatry, 17, 1, 48, February 2017, 28152990, 5288938, 10.1186/s12888-016-1146-5, free, JOURNAL, Dickey CC, Shenton ME, Hirayasu Y, Fischer I, Voglmaier MM, Niznikiewicz MA, Seidman LJ, Fraone S, McCarley RW, Large CSF volume not attributable to ventricular volume in schizotypal personality disorder, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1, 48–54, January 2000, 10618012, 10.1176/ajp.157.1.48, 2832789, possibly specifically the left hemisphere. The reduced levels of gray matter in these areas may be linked to their negative symptoms.JOURNAL, Asami T, Whitford TJ, Bouix S, Dickey CC, Niznikiewicz M, Shenton ME, Voglmaier MM, McCarley RW, Globally and locally reduced MRI gray matter volumes in neuroleptic-naive men with schizotypal personality disorder: association with negative symptoms, JAMA Psychiatry, 70, 4, 361–372, April 2013, 23389420, 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.665, free, Reduced volume of gray or white matter in the superior temporal gyrus or the transverse temporal gyrus are thought to lead to issues with speech,JOURNAL, Dickey CC, McCarley RW, Voglmaier MM, Frumin M, Niznikiewicz MA, Hirayasu Y, Fraone S, Seidman LJ, Shenton ME, Smaller left Heschl’s gyrus volume in patients with schizotypal personality disorder, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 9, 1521–1527, September 2002, 12202272, 10.1176/appi.ajp.159.9.1521, 2832788, JOURNAL, Dickey CC, McCarley RW, Voglmaier MM, Niznikiewicz MA, Seidman LJ, Frumin M, Toner S, Demeo S, Shenton ME, A MRI study of fusiform gyrus in schizotypal personality disorder, Schizophrenia Research, 64, 1, 35–39, November 2003, 14511799, 10.1016/S0920-9964(02)00529-7, 2848253, 8218211,nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:28520542, JOURNAL, Lener MS, Wong E, Tang CY, Byne W, Goldstein KE, Blair NJ, Haznedar MM, New AS, Chemerinski E, Chu KW, Rimsky LS, Siever LJ, Koenigsberg HW, Hazlett EA, White matter abnormalities in schizophrenia and schizotypal personality disorder, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 41, 1, 300–310, January 2015, 24962608, 4266294, 10.1093/schbul/sbu093, memory, and hallucinations.JOURNAL, Dickey CC, McCarley RW, Shenton ME, The brain in schizotypal personality disorder: a review of structural MRI and CT findings, Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 10, 1, 1–15, 2002, 11751641, 2854016, 10.1080/10673220216201, JOURNAL, Goldstein KE, Hazlett EA, New AS, Haznedar MM, Newmark RE, Zelmanova Y, Passarelli V, Weinstein SR, Canfield EL, Meyerson DA, Tang CY, Buchsbaum MS, Siever LJ, Smaller superior temporal gyrus volume specificity in schizotypal personality disorder, Schizophrenia Research, 112, 1–3, 14–23, July 2009, 19473820, 10.1016/j.schres.2009.04.027, 2782902, Deficits in the gray matter volume of the temporal lobe and prefrontal cortex are likely associated with impairments in cognitive function, sensory processing, speech, executive function, decision-making, and emotional processing present in people with StPD.JOURNAL, Takayanagi Y, Sasabayashi D, Takahashi T, Furuichi A, Kido M, Nishikawa Y, Nakamura M, Noguchi K, Suzuki M, Reduced Cortical Thickness in Schizophrenia and Schizotypal Disorder, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 46, 2, 387–394, February 2020, 31167030, 7406196, 10.1093/schbul/sbz051, JOURNAL, Perez-Rodriguez MM, Zaluda L, New AS, April 2013, Biological Advances in Personality Disorders,focus.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.focus.11.2.146, FOCUS, 11, 2, 146–154, 10.1176/appi.focus.11.2.146, 1541-4094, StPD symptoms may also be influenced by reduced internal capsule,JOURNAL, Hazlett EA, Collazo T, Zelmanova Y, Entis JJ, Chu KW, Goldstein KE, Roussos P, Haznedar MM, Koenigsberg HW, New AS, Buchsbaum MS, Hershowitz JP, Siever LJ, Byne W, Anterior limb of the internal capsule in schizotypal personality disorder: fiber-tract counting, volume, and anisotropy, Schizophrenia Research, 141, 2–3, 119–127, November 2012, 22995934, 10.1016/j.schres.2012.08.022, 3742803, JOURNAL, Suzuki M, Zhou SY, Hagino H, Takahashi T, Kawasaki Y, Nohara S, Yamashita I, Matsui M, Seto H, Kurachi M, Volume reduction of the right anterior limb of the internal capsule in patients with schizotypal disorder, Psychiatry Research, 130, 3, 213–225, April 2004, 15135156, 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2004.01.001, 40481295, JOURNAL, Hazlett EA, Goldstein KE, Kolaitis JC, A review of structural MRI and diffusion tensor imaging in schizotypal personality disorder, Current Psychiatry Reports, 14, 1, 70–78, February 2012, 22006127, 3256320, 10.1007/s11920-011-0241-z, which carries information to the cerebral cortex.JOURNAL, Hazlett EA, Goldstein KE, Tajima-Pozo K, Speidel ER, Zelmanova Y, Entis JJ, Silverman JM, New AS, Koenigsberg HW, Haznedar MM, Byne W, Siever LJ, Cingulate and temporal lobe fractional anisotropy in schizotypal personality disorder, NeuroImage, 55, 3, 900–908, April 2011, 21223999, 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.12.082, 3262398, People with StPD can also have impairments in the uncinate fasciculus, which connects parts of the limbic system.JOURNAL, Gurrera RJ, Nakamura M, Kubicki M, Dickey CC, Niznikiewicz MA, Voglmaier MM, McCarley RW, Shenton ME, Westin CF, Maier SE, Seidman LJ, The uncinate fasciculus and extraversion in schizotypal personality disorder: a diffusion tensor imaging study, Schizophrenia Research, 90, 1–3, 360–362, February 2007, 17126532, 10.1016/j.schres.2006.10.003, 1876710, People with StPD have reduced levels of gray matter in their middle frontal gyrus and Brodmann area 10.JOURNAL, Lagioia A, Eliez S, Schneider M, Simons JS, Van der Linden M, Debbané M, Neural correlates of reality monitoring during adolescence, NeuroImage, 55, 3, 1393–1400, April 2011, 21195192, 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.12.058, 2268/242658, 757306,orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/242658/1/Lagioia_Neuralcorrelates_2011-ppa.pdf, Although, not as reduced as patients with Schizophrenia. Possibly preventing them from developing schizophrenia.JOURNAL, Liu K, Zhang T, Zhang Q, Sun Y, Wu J, Lei Y, Chu WC, Mok VC, Wang D, Shi L, Characterization of the Fiber Connectivity Profile of the Cerebral Cortex in Schizotypal Personality Disorder: A Pilot Study, Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 809, 2016, 27303358, 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00809, 4884735, free, Increased gyrification in gyri by the cerebellum may lead to dysconnectivity in the brain, and therefore, schizotypal symptoms.JOURNAL, Sasabayashi D, Takayanagi Y, Takahashi T, Nemoto K, Furuichi A, Kido M, Nishikawa Y, Nakamura M, Noguchi K, Suzuki M, Increased brain gyrification in the schizophrenia spectrum, Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 74, 1, 70–76, January 2020, 31596011, 10.1111/pcn.12939, 203985518, free, JOURNAL, Hazlett EA, Buchsbaum MS, Haznedar MM, Newmark R, Goldstein KE, Zelmanova Y, Glanton CF, Torosjan Y, New AS, Lo JN, Mitropoulou V, Siever LJ, Cortical gray and white matter volume in unmedicated schizotypal and schizophrenia patients, Schizophrenia Research, 101, 1–3, 111–123, April 2008, 18272348, 10.1016/j.schres.2007.12.472, 2672563, 12723481, They may also have a hyporeactive,JOURNAL, Perez-Rodriguez MM, New AS, Goldstein KE, Rosell D, Yuan Q, Zhou Z, Hodgkinson C, Goldman D, Siever LJ, Hazlett EA, Brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met genotype modulates amygdala habituation, Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 263, 85–92, May 2017, 28371657, 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2017.03.008, 5856456, or hyperreactive amygdala.JOURNAL, Stanfield AC, Philip RC, Whalley H, Romaniuk L, Hall J, Johnstone EC, Lawrie SM, Dissociation of Brain Activation in Autism and Schizotypal Personality Disorder During Social Judgments, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 43, 6, 1220–1228, October 2017, 29088456, 5737648, 10.1093/schbul/sbx083, As well as hyperactive pituitary glands and putamens.JOURNAL, Chemerinski E, Byne W, Kolaitis JC, Glanton CF, Canfield EL, Newmark RE, Haznedar MM, Novakovic V, Chu KW, Siever LJ, Hazlett EA, Larger putamen size in antipsychotic-naïve individuals with schizotypal personality disorder, Schizophrenia Research, 143, 1, 158–164, January 2013, 23187070, 10.1016/j.schres.2012.11.003, 3634353, JOURNAL, Romo-Nava F, Hoogenboom WS, Pelavin PE, Alvarado JL, Bobrow LH, Macmaster FP, Keshavan M, McCarley RW, Shenton ME, Pituitary volume in schizophrenia spectrum disorders, Schizophrenia Research, 146, 1–3, 301–307, May 2013, 23522905, 10.1016/j.schres.2013.02.024, 3760333, It is also possible that lower capacities for prepulse inhibition plays a role in StPD.JOURNAL, Cadenhead KS, Light GA, Geyer MA, McDowell JE, Braff DL, Neurobiological measures of schizotypal personality disorder: defining an inhibitory endophenotype?, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 5, 869–871, May 2002, 11986147, 10.1176/appi.ajp.159.5.869, JOURNAL, Hazlett EA, Levine J, Buchsbaum MS, Silverman JM, New A, Sevin EM, Maldari LA, Siever LJ, Deficient attentional modulation of the startle response in patients with schizotypal personality disorder, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 9, 1621–1626, September 2003, 12944337, 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.9.1621, JOURNAL, Cadenhead KS, Swerdlow NR, Shafer KM, Diaz M, Braff DL, Modulation of the startle response and startle laterality in relatives of schizophrenic patients and in subjects with schizotypal personality disorder: evidence of inhibitory deficits, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 10, 1660–1668, October 2000, 11007721, 10.1176/appi.ajp.157.10.1660, JOURNAL, Cadenhead KS, Geyer MA, Braff DL, Impaired startle prepulse inhibition and habituation in patients with schizotypal personality disorder, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 12, 1862–1867, December 1993, 8238643, 10.1176/ajp.150.12.1862, Research has suggested that people with StPD can have higher concentrations of Homovanillic acids.JOURNAL, Siever LJ, Amin F, Coccaro EF, Trestman R, Silverman J, Horvath TB, Mahon TR, Knott P, Altstiel L, Davidson M, CSF homovanillic acid in schizotypal personality disorder, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1, 149–151, January 1993, 8417559, 10.1176/ajp.150.1.149, Abnormalities in the cave of septum pellucidum may also be present.JOURNAL, Kwon JS, Shenton ME, Hirayasu Y, Salisbury DF, Fischer IA, Dickey CC, Yurgelun-Todd D, Tohen M, Kikinis R, Jolesz FA, McCarley RW, MRI study of cavum septi pellucidi in schizophrenia, affective disorder, and schizotypal personality disorder, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 4, 509–515, April 1998, 9545997, 10.1176/ajp.155.4.509, 2826366, In people predisposed to the development of Schizophrenia spectrum disorders, the consumption of cannabis can induce the onset of StPD or other disorders with psychotic symptoms.JOURNAL, Anglin DM, Corcoran CM, Brown AS, Chen H, Lighty Q, Brook JS, Cohen PR, Early cannabis use and schizotypal personality disorder symptoms from adolescence to middle adulthood, Schizophrenia Research, 137, 1–3, 45–49, May 2012, 22325079, 10.1016/j.schres.2012.01.019, 3591468, JOURNAL, Davis GP, Compton MT, Wang S, Levin FR, Blanco C, Association between cannabis use, psychosis, and schizotypal personality disorder: findings from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions, Schizophrenia Research, 151, 1–3, 197–202, December 2013, 24200416, 10.1016/j.schres.2013.10.018, 3877688, JOURNAL, Hjorthøj C, Albert N, Nordentoft M, Association of Substance Use Disorders With Conversion From Schizotypal Disorder to Schizophrenia, JAMA Psychiatry, 75, 7, 733–739, July 2018, 29710317, 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.0568, 6145672, 13966874, JOURNAL, Fridberg DJ, Vollmer JM, O’Donnell BF, Skosnik PD, Cannabis users differ from non-users on measures of personality and schizotypy, Psychiatry Research, 186, 1, 46–52, March 2011, 20813412, 10.1016/j.psychres.2010.07.035, 3036782,

Environmental

Unique environmental factors, which differ from shared sibling experiences, have been found to play a role in the development of StPD and its dimensions. There is evidence to suggest that parenting styles, early separation, childhood trauma, and childhood neglect can lead to the development of schizotypal traits.JOURNAL, Dong F, Liu J, Hodgson NA, Medoff-Cooper B, Early life factors of schizotypal personality disorder in adolescents: A systematic review, Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 28, 6, 1092–1112, December 2021, 33502097, 10.1111/jpm.12733, 231761157, Deidre M. Anglina, Patricia R. Cohenab, Henian Chena (2008) Duration of early maternal separation and prediction of schizotypal symptoms from early adolescence to midlife, Schizophrenia Research Volume 103, Issue 1, Pages 143–150 (August 2008)Howard Berenbaum, Ph.D., Eve M. Valera, Ph.D. and John G. Kerns, Ph.D. (2003) Psychological Trauma and Schizotypal Symptoms, Oxford Journals, Medicine, Schizophrenia Bulletin Volume 29, Number 1 Pp. 143–152 Neglect, abuse, stress,JOURNAL, Tessner KD, Mittal V, Walker EF, Longitudinal study of stressful life events and daily stressors among adolescents at high risk for psychotic disorders, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 37, 2, 432–441, March 2011, 19734244, 3044629, 10.1093/schbul/sbp087, trauma,JOURNAL, Liu J, Gong J, Nie G, He Y, Xiao B, Shen Y, Luo X, The mediating effects of childhood neglect on the association between schizotypal and autistic personality traits and depression in a non-clinical sample, BMC Psychiatry, 17, 1, 352, October 2017, 29065890, 5655952, 10.1186/s12888-017-1510-0, free, JOURNAL, Anglin DM, Cohen PR, Chen H, Duration of early maternal separation and prediction of schizotypal symptoms from early adolescence to midlife, Schizophrenia Research, 103, 1–3, 143–150, August 2008, 18407465, 10.1016/j.schres.2008.02.016, 2603441, JOURNAL, Berenbaum H, Thompson RJ, Milanek ME, Boden MT, Bredemeier K, Psychological trauma and schizotypal personality disorder, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 3, 502–519, August 2008, 18729605, 10.1037/0021-843X.117.3.502, or family dysfunction during childhood may increase the risk of developing schizotypal personality disorder.JOURNAL, Lentz V, Robinson J, Bolton JM, Childhood adversity, mental disorder comorbidity, and suicidal behavior in schizotypal personality disorder, The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 198, 11, 795–801, November 2010, 21048469, 10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181f9804c, 205882039, JOURNAL, Ericson M, Tuvblad C, Raine A, Young-Wolff K, Baker LA, Heritability and longitudinal stability of schizotypal traits during adolescence, Behavior Genetics, 41, 4, 499–511, July 2011, 21369821, 3123391, 10.1007/s10519-010-9401-x, JOURNAL, Wong KK, Raine A, Developmental Aspects of Schizotypy and Suspiciousness: a Review, Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports, 5, 1, 94–101, 2018-03-01, 29577010, 5857559, 10.1007/s40473-018-0144-y, There is also evidence indicating that disruptions in brain development during the prenatal period could affect the development of StPD.JOURNAL, Machón RA, Huttunen MO, Mednick SA, Sinivuo J, Tanskanen A, Bunn Watson J, Henriksson M, Pyhälä R, Adult schizotypal personality characteristics and prenatal influenza in a Finnish birth cohort, Schizophrenia Research, 54, 1–2, 7–16, March 2002, 11853973, 10.1016/S0920-9964(01)00346-2, 20875584, Over time, children learn to interpret social cues and respond appropriately but for unknown reasons this process does not work well for people with this disorder.WEB, Mayo Clinic Staff, Schizotypal personality disorder,www.mayoclinic.com/health/schizotypal-personality-disorder/DS00830/DSECTION=causes, dead,www.mayoclinic.com:80/health/schizotypal-personality-disorder/DS00830/DSECTION=causes," title="web.archive.org/web/20120309231644www.mayoclinic.com:80/health/schizotypal-personality-disorder/DS00830/DSECTION=causes,">web.archive.org/web/20120309231644www.mayoclinic.com:80/health/schizotypal-personality-disorder/DS00830/DSECTION=causes, 9 March 2012, 21 February 2012, Mayo Clinic, During childhood, people with StPD may have seen little emotional expression from their parents. Another possibility is that they were excessively criticized or felt like they were constantly under threat,JOURNAL, Dizinger JM, Doll CM, Rosen M, Gruen M, Daum L, Schultze-Lutter F, Betz L, Kambeitz J, Vogeley K, Haidl TK, Does childhood trauma predict schizotypal traits? A path modelling approach in a cohort of help-seeking subjects, European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 272, 5, 909–922, August 2022, 34982217, 9279245, 10.1007/s00406-021-01373-6, potentially resulting in the onset of social anxiety, strange thinking patterns,JOURNAL, Powers AD, Thomas KM, Ressler KJ, Bradley B, The differential effects of child abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder on schizotypal personality disorder, Comprehensive Psychiatry, 52, 4, 438–445, 2011-07-01, 21683181, 10.1016/j.comppsych.2010.08.001, 3122145, and blunted affect present in StPD.JOURNAL, Cohen P, Chen H, Gordon K, Johnson J, Brook J, Kasen S, Socioeconomic background and the developmental course of schizotypal and borderline personality disorder symptoms, Development and Psychopathology, 20, 2, 633–650, 2008, 18423098, 10.1017/S095457940800031X, 3857688, JOURNAL, Velikonja T, Velthorst E, McClure MM, Rutter S, Calabrese WR, Rosell D, Koenigsberg HW, Goodman M, New AS, Hazlett EA, Perez-Rodriguez MM, Severe childhood trauma and clinical and neurocognitive features in schizotypal personality disorder, Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 140, 1, 50–64, July 2019, 30951190, 10.1111/acps.13032, 96436653, Their difficulties in social situations might eventually cause the individual to withdraw from most social interactions, thus leading to asociality.JOURNAL, Roitman SE, Cornblatt BA, Bergman A, Obuchowski M, Mitropoulou V, Keefe RS, Silverman JM, Siever LJ, Attentional functioning in schizotypal personality disorder, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 5, 655–660, May 1997, 9137121, 10.1176/ajp.154.5.655, Children with schizotypal symptoms usually are more likely to indulge in internal fantasies,JOURNAL, Esterberg ML, Goulding SM, Walker EF, Cluster A Personality Disorders: Schizotypal, Schizoid and Paranoid Personality Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence, Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 32, 4, 515–528, December 2010, 21116455, 2992453, 10.1007/s10862-010-9183-8, more anxious, socially isolated, and more sensitive to criticism.JOURNAL, Olin SS, Raine A, Cannon TD, Parnas J, Schulsinger F, Mednick SA, Childhood behavior precursors of schizotypal personality disorder, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 23, 1, 93–103, 1997, 9050116, 10.1093/schbul/23.1.93, free, People with the most severe cases of StPD usually have a combination of childhood trauma and a genetic basis for their condition.JOURNAL, Raine A, Wong KK, Liu J, The Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire for Children (SPQ-C): Factor Structure, Child Abuse, and Family History of Schizotypy, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 47, 2, 323–331, March 2021, 32674122, 8370046, 10.1093/schbul/sbaa100, JOURNAL, Berenbaum H, Valera EM, Kerns JG, Psychological trauma and schizotypal symptoms, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 29, 1, 143–152, 2003, 12908670, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a006985, free,

Signs and symptoms

(File:Paranoia (158822147).jpeg|thumb|190x190px|People with StPD can feel intense paranoia.)(File:Rotating snakes illusion.svg|thumb|186x186px|People with StPD can have abnormal sensory experiences.)

Magical ideation

Odd and magical thinking is common among people with StPD.JOURNAL, Fonseca-Pedrero E, Ortuño J, Debbané M, Chan RC, Cicero D, Zhang LC, Brenner C, Barkus E, Linscott RJ, Kwapil T, Barrantes-Vidal N, Cohen A, Raine A, Compton MT, Tone EB, Suhr J, Inchausti F, Bobes J, Fumero A, Giakoumaki S, Tsaousis I, Preti A, Chmielewski M, Laloyaux J, Mechri A, Aymen Lahmar M, Wuthrich V, Larøi F, Badcock JC, Jablensky A, Isvoranu AM, Epskamp S, Fried EI, The Network Structure of Schizotypal Personality Traits, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 44, suppl_2, S468–S479, October 2018, 29684178, 6188518, 10.1093/schbul/sby044, JOURNAL, Davidson CA, Hoffman L, Spaulding WD, Schizotypal personality questionnaire--brief revised (updated): An update of norms, factor structure, and item content in a large non-clinical young adult sample, Psychiatry Research, 238, 345–355, April 2016, 27086255, 10.1016/j.psychres.2016.01.053, 4834869, JOURNAL, Sokolova E, Andreyuk K, Ryzhov A, 2021, Relationship of abstract thinking to mentalization in schizophrenia, European Psychiatry, en, 64, S1, S527, 10.1192/j.eurpsy.2021.1407, 9475916, 0924-9338, They are more likely to believe in supernatural phenomena and entities.JOURNAL, Crespi B, Dinsdale N, Read S, Hurd P, Spirituality, dimensional autism, and schizotypal traits: The search for meaning, PLOS ONE, 14, 3, e0213456, 2019-03-08, 30849096, 6407781, 10.1371/journal.pone.0213456, 2019PLoSO..1413456C, free, JOURNAL, Carvalho LF, Sagradim DE, Pianowski G, Gonçalves AP, Relationship between religiosity domains and traits from borderline and schizotypal personality disorders in a Brazilian community sample, Trends in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 42, 3, 239–246, 2020-10-19, 33084801, 10.1590/2237-6089-2019-0085, 7879071, 224828232, JOURNAL, Breslin MJ, Lewis CA, 2015-03-04, Schizotypy and Religiosity: The Magic of Prayer,brill.com/view/journals/arp/37/1/article-p84_5.xml, Archive for the Psychology of Religion, en, 37, 1, 84–97, 10.1163/15736121-12341300, 144734469, 0084-6724, JOURNAL, Byrom GN, 2009, Differential Relationships between Experiential and Interpretive Dimensions of Mysticism and Schizotypal Magical Ideation in a University Sample,journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1163/157361209X424420, Archive for the Psychology of Religion, en, 31, 2, 127–150, 10.1163/157361209X424420, 143580864, 0084-6724, It is common for people with StPD to experience severe social anxiety and have paranoid ideation.JOURNAL, Farsham A, Abbaslou T, Bidaki R, Bozorg B, Comparing Facial Emotional Recognition in Patients with Borderline Personality Disorder and Patients with Schizotypal Personality Disorder with a Normal Group, Iranian Journal of Psychiatry, 12, 2, 87–92, April 2017, 28659980, 5483242, JOURNAL, Dickey CC, McCarley RW, Niznikiewicz MA, Voglmaier MM, Seidman LJ, Kim S, Shenton ME, Clinical, cognitive, and social characteristics of a sample of neuroleptic-naive persons with schizotypal personality disorder, Schizophrenia Research, 78, 2–3, 297–308, October 2005, 15985362, 10.1016/j.schres.2005.05.016, 2766931, Ideas of reference are common in people with StPD.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Wong KK, Raine A, Schizotypal Personality Disorder, 2020-09-18, The Wiley Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences, 115–120, Carducci BJ, Nave CS, Mio JS, Riggio RE, 1st, Wiley, en, 10.1002/9781118970843.ch283, 978-1-118-97074-4, JOURNAL, Hummelen B, Pedersen G, Karterud S, Some suggestions for the DSM-5 schizotypal personality disorder construct, Comprehensive Psychiatry, 53, 4, 341–349, May 2012, 21741634, 10.1016/j.comppsych.2011.05.009, JOURNAL, Chan CC, Bulbena-Cabre A, Rutter S, Benavides C, McClure MM, Calabrese W, Rosell DR, Koenigsberg HW, Goodman M, New AS, Hazlett EA, Mercedes Perez-Rodriguez M, Comparison of self-report and clinician-rated schizotypal traits in schizotypal personality disorder and community controls, Schizophrenia Research, 209, 263–268, July 2019, 30635257, 10.1016/j.schres.2018.12.050, 6614007, They can feel as if expressing themselves is dangerous. They may also feel that others are more competent, and have deeply entrenched and pervasive insecurities. Strange thinking patterns may be a defense mechanism against these feelings.JOURNAL, Pattamanusorn N, Wongpakaran N, Thongpibul K, Wongpakaran T, Kuntawong P, Pathogenic beliefs among patients with schizotypal personality disorder, English, Heliyon, 6, 5, e03870, May 2020, 32382682, 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03870, free, 7200782, 2020Heliy...603870P, 218555815, People with StPD usually have limited levels of self-awareness.JOURNAL, Raballo A, Poletti M, Preti A, Parnas J, The Self in the Spectrum: A Meta-analysis of the Evidence Linking Basic Self-Disorders and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 47, 4, 1007–1017, July 2021, 33479736, 8266610, 10.1093/schbul/sbaa201, They may believe others think of them more negatively than they actually do.JOURNAL, Carlson EN, Oltmanns TF, The Role of Metaperception in Personality Disorders: Do People with Personality Problems Know How Others Experience Their Personality?, Journal of Personality Disorders, 29, 4, 449–467, August 2015, 26200846, 4760634, 10.1521/pedi.2015.29.4.449,

Affect

Patients with StPD can have difficulties in recognizing their or others’ emotions.JOURNAL, Dickey CC, Panych LP, Voglmaier MM, Niznikiewicz MA, Terry DP, Murphy C, Zacks R, Shenton ME, McCarley RW, Facial emotion recognition and facial affect display in schizotypal personality disorder, English, Schizophrenia Research, 131, 1–3, 242–249, September 2011, 21640557, 10.1016/j.schres.2011.04.020, 3159849, JOURNAL, Thakkar KN, Park S, Empathy, schizotypy, and visuospatial transformations, Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 15, 5, 477–500, September 2010, 20437282, 10.1080/13546801003711350, 2933940, This can extend to difficulties expressing emotion.JOURNAL, Dickey CC, Vu MA, Voglmaier MM, Niznikiewicz MA, McCarley RW, Panych LP, Prosodic abnormalities in schizotypal personality disorder, Schizophrenia Research, 142, 1–3, 20–30, December 2012, 23068317, 10.1016/j.schres.2012.09.006, 3502641, JOURNAL, Phillips LK, Seidman LJ, Emotion processing in persons at risk for schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 34, 5, 888–903, September 2008, 18644853, 2518637, 10.1093/schbul/sbn085, They may have limited responses to others’ emotions and can be ambivalent.JOURNAL, van ‘t Wout M, Sanfey AG, Interactive decision-making in people with schizotypal traits: a game theory approach, Psychiatry Research, 185, 1–2, 92–96, January 2011, 20538347, 10.1016/j.psychres.2010.05.013, 2943544, It is common for people with StPD to derive limited joy from activities.JOURNAL, Shi YF, Wang Y, Cao XY, Wang Y, Wang YN, Zong JG, Xu T, Tse VW, Hsi XL, Stone WS, Lui SS, Cheung EF, Chan RC, Experience of pleasure and emotional expression in individuals with schizotypal personality features, PLOS ONE, 7, 5, e34147, 2012-05-16, 22615731, 3353966, 10.1371/journal.pone.0034147, 2012PLoSO...734147S, free, JOURNAL, Yan C, Liu WH, Cao Y, Chan RC, Self-reported pleasure experience and motivation in individuals with schizotypal personality disorders proneness, East Asian Archives of Psychiatry, 21, 3, 115–122, September 2011, 21921305,pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21921305/, JOURNAL, Horan WP, Blanchard JJ, Clark LA, Green MF, Affective traits in schizophrenia and schizotypy, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 34, 5, 856–874, September 2008, 18667393, 2632479, 10.1093/schbul/sbn083, People with StPD are typically more socially isolated and uninterested in social situations than most people,JOURNAL, Geng FL, Xu T, Wang Y, Shi HS, Yan C, Neumann DL, Shum DH, Lui SS, Cheung EF, Chan RC, Developmental trajectories of schizotypal personality disorder-like behavioural manifestations: a two-year longitudinal prospective study of college students, BMC Psychiatry, 13, 1, 323, November 2013, 24289659, 3875349, 10.1186/1471-244X-13-323, free, JOURNAL, Blanchard JJ, Aghevli M, Wilson A, Sargeant M, Developmental instability in social anhedonia: an examination of minor physical anomalies and clinical characteristics, Schizophrenia Research, 118, 1–3, 162–167, May 2010, 19944570, 10.1016/j.schres.2009.10.028, 2856752, JOURNAL, Vinogradova M, Chepeliuk A, Dorofeeva O, 2021, Productivity of the performance of visual perceptual tasks and symptom severity in patients with schizotypal disorder, European Psychiatry, en, 64, S1, S525, 10.1192/j.eurpsy.2021.1402, 9476036, 0924-9338, although they can be socially active on the internet.JOURNAL, Mittal VA, Tessner KD, Walker EF, Elevated social Internet use and schizotypal personality disorder in adolescents, Schizophrenia Research, 94, 1–3, 50–57, August 2007, 17532188, 2323598, 10.1016/j.schres.2007.04.009, Depersonalization,JOURNAL, de Francisco Carvalho L, Magarotto Machado G, Padovani S, Pianowski G, Measuring pathological traits of the schizotypal personality disorder through the HiTOP model, Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 62, 6, 839–845, December 2021, 34245006, 10.1111/sjop.12761, 235786787, {{Citation | vauthors = Hamilton HK, Simeon D |title=Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder and Schizotypal Personality Disorder |date=2018-12-27 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118585948.ch15 |work=Psychosis, Trauma and Dissociation |pages=241–256 | veditors = Moskowitz A, Dorahy MJ, Schäfer I |edition=1st |publisher=Wiley |language=en |doi=10.1002/9781118585948.ch15 |isbn=978-1-119-95285-5 |s2cid=149618564 |access-date=2022-10-29 }} derealization,BOOK,onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781118585948, Psychosis, Trauma and Dissociation: Evolving Perspectives on Severe Psychopathology, Hamilton H, Simeon D, November 19, 2018, Wiley (publisher), Wiley, 978-1-119-95285-5, 241–256, en, Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder and Schizotypal Personality Disorder, 10.1002/9781118585948.ch15,onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118585948.ch15, 149618564, boredom,JOURNAL, Zandersen M, Parnas J, January 2019, Identity Disturbance, Feelings of Emptiness, and the Boundaries of the Schizophrenia Spectrum, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 45, 1, 106–113, 10.1093/schbul/sbx183, 6293220, 29373752, and internal fantasies are common in patients with StPD. Abnormal facial expressions are also common in people with StPD, and they can have aberrant eye movements and difficulty responding to stimuli.JOURNAL, Siever LJ, Coursey RD, Alterman IS, Buchsbaum MS, Murphy DL, Impaired smooth pursuit eye movement: vulnerability marker for schizotypal personality disorder in a normal volunteer population, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 12, 1560–1566, December 1984, 6507660, 10.1176/ajp.141.12.1560, JOURNAL, Hazlett EA, Buchsbaum MS, Zhang J, Newmark RE, Glanton CF, Zelmanova Y, Haznedar MM, Chu KW, Nenadic I, Kemether EM, Tang CY, New AS, Siever LJ, Frontal-striatal-thalamic mediodorsal nucleus dysfunction in schizophrenia-spectrum patients during sensorimotor gating, NeuroImage, 42, 3, 1164–1177, September 2008, 18588988, 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.05.039, 2548278, JOURNAL, Siever LJ, Keefe R, Bernstein DP, Coccaro EF, Klar HM, Zemishlany Z, Peterson AE, Davidson M, Mahon T, Horvath T, Eye tracking impairment in clinically identified patients with schizotypal personality disorder, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 6, 740–745, June 1990, 2343917, 10.1176/ajp.147.6.740, JOURNAL, Siever LJ, Friedman L, Moskowitz J, Mitropoulou V, Keefe R, Roitman SL, Merhige D, Trestman R, Silverman J, Mohs R, Eye movement impairment and schizotypal psychopathology, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 8, 1209–1215, August 1994, 8037257, 10.1176/ajp.151.8.1209, JOURNAL, Cadenhead KS, Light GA, Geyer MA, Braff DL, Sensory gating deficits assessed by the P50 event-related potential in subjects with schizotypal personality disorder, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1, 55–59, January 2000, 10618013, 10.1176/ajp.157.1.55, 20139616, They are more prone to substance abuse or suicidal ideation.JOURNAL, Raballo A, Parnas J, The silent side of the spectrum: schizotypy and the schizotaxic self, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 37, 5, 1017–1026, September 2011, 20176859, 3160219, 10.1093/schbul/sbq008, JOURNAL, Fenton WS, McGlashan TH, Victor BJ, Blyler CR, Symptoms, subtype, and suicidality in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 2, 199–204, February 1997, 9016268, 10.1176/ajp.154.2.199, 33964324, Another epidemiological study on suicidal behavior in StPD found that, even when accounting for sociodemographic factors, people with StPD were 1.51 times more likely to attempt suicide.

Cognitive impairments

People with StPD tend to have cognitive impairments.JOURNAL, Weiser M, Noy S, Kaplan Z, Reichenberg A, Yazvitsky R, Nahon D, Grotto I, Knobler HY, Generalized cognitive impairment in male adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder, American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 116B, 1, 36–40, January 2003, 12497611, 10.1002/ajmg.b.10853, 24719039, They can have abnormal perceptional and sensory experiences such as illusions.JOURNAL, Hazlett EA, Rothstein EG, Ferreira R, Silverman JM, Siever LJ, Olincy A, Sensory gating disturbances in the spectrum: similarities and differences in schizotypal personality disorder and schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research, 161, 2–3, 283–290, February 2015, 25482574, 10.1016/j.schres.2014.11.020, 4308515, JOURNAL, Cohen AS, Auster TL, MacAulay RK, McGovern JE, Illusory superiority and schizotypal personality: explaining the discrepancy between subjective/objective psychopathology, Personality Disorders, 5, 4, 413–418, October 2014, 25150366, 4372844, 10.1037/per0000080, For example, someone with StPD may perceive colors as lighter or darker than others perceive them.JOURNAL, Fonseca-Pedrero E, Badoud D, Antico L, Caputo GB, Eliez S, Schwartz S, Debbané M, Strange-face-in-the-mirror illusion and schizotypy during adolescence, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 41, Suppl 2, S475–S482, March 2015, 25810060, 4373638, 10.1093/schbul/sbu196, Facial perception may also be difficult for people with the disorder.JOURNAL, Leonards U, Mohr C, Schizotypal personality traits influence idiosyncratic initiation of saccadic face exploration, Vision Research, 49, 19, 2404–2413, September 2009, 19643123, 10.1016/j.visres.2009.07.013, 16477946, JOURNAL, Ahn S, Lustenberger C, Jarskog LF, Fröhlich F, Neurophysiological substrates of configural face perception in schizotypy, Schizophrenia Research, 216, 389–396, February 2020, 31801677, 10.1016/j.schres.2019.11.005, 7239709, JOURNAL, Terrien S, Gobin P, Iakimova G, Coutté A, Thuaire F, Baltazart V, Mazzola-Pomietto P, Besche-Richard C, Electrophysiological correlates of emotional meaning in context in relation to facets of schizotypal personality traits: A dimensional study, Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 70, 3, 141–150, March 2016, 26482112, 10.1111/pcn.12366, 206256765, free, JOURNAL, Mitropoulou V, Harvey PD, Zegarelli G, New AS, Silverman JM, Siever LJ, Neuropsychological performance in schizotypal personality disorder: importance of working memory, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 10, 1896–1903, October 2005, 16199836, 10.1176/appi.ajp.162.10.1896, They can see others as deformed, may misrecognize them, or can feel as if they are alien to them. People with StPD can have difficulty processing information such as speech or language.JOURNAL, Rabella M, Grasa E, Corripio I, Romero S, Mañanas MÀ, Antonijoan RM, Münte TF, Pérez V, Riba J, Neurophysiological evidence of impaired self-monitoring in schizotypal personality disorder and its reversal by dopaminergic antagonism, NeuroImage. Clinical, 11, 770–779, 2016-01-01, 27330977, 10.1016/j.nicl.2016.05.019, 4909819, 14043730, JOURNAL, Niznikiewicz MA, Spencer KM, Dickey C, Voglmaier M, Seidman LJ, Shenton ME, McCarley RW, Abnormal pitch mismatch negativity in individuals with schizotypal personality disorder, Schizophrenia Research, 110, 1–3, 188–193, May 2009, 19327968, 10.1016/j.schres.2008.10.017, 4285443, JOURNAL, Gilleen J, Tesse M, Velikonja T, Weiser M, Davidson M, Reichenberg A, Schizotypal traits and neuropsychological performance: The role of processing speed, Schizophrenia Research, 223, 128–134, September 2020, 32631701, 10.1016/j.schres.2020.06.030, 7704687, 220325569, They are more likely to speak slowly, with less fluctuation in pitch,JOURNAL, Dickey CC, Morocz IA, Minney D, Niznikiewicz MA, Voglmaier MM, Panych LP, Khan U, Zacks R, Terry DP, Shenton ME, McCarley RW, Factors in sensory processing of prosody in schizotypal personality disorder: an fMRI experiment, Schizophrenia Research, 121, 1–3, 75–89, August 2010, 20362418, 10.1016/j.schres.2010.03.008, 2905482, and long pauses between speech. Patients with StPD may have a lower odor detection threshold,JOURNAL, Mathur N, Dawes C, Moran PM, Olfactory threshold selectively predicts positive psychometric schizotypy, Schizophrenia Research, 209, 80–87, July 2019, 31160166, 10.1016/j.schres.2019.05.014, 171091790, free, and can have impaired auditory or olfactory processing.JOURNAL, Brenner CA, Sporns O, Lysaker PH, O’Donnell BF, EEG synchronization to modulated auditory tones in schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and schizotypal personality disorder, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 12, 2238–2240, December 2003, 14638599, 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.12.2238, 10677570, It is also common for people with StPD to struggle with context processing,JOURNAL, Niznikiewicz MA, Shenton ME, Voglmaier M, Nestor PG, Dickey CC, Frumin M, Seidman LJ, Allen CG, McCarley RW, Semantic dysfunction in women with schizotypal personality disorder, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 10, 1767–1774, October 2002, 12359685, 10.1176/appi.ajp.159.10.1767, 2845844, JOURNAL, McClure MM, Barch DM, Flory JD, Harvey PD, Siever LJ, Context processing in schizotypal personality disorder: evidence of specificity of impairment to the schizophrenia spectrum, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 2, 342–354, May 2008, 18489210, 4176884, 10.1037/0021-843X.117.2.342, which cause them to form loose connections between events.JOURNAL, Kiang M, Prugh J, Kutas M, An event-related brain potential study of schizotypal personality and associative semantic processing, International Journal of Psychophysiology, 75, 2, 119–126, February 2010, 19818815, 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2009.10.005, Psychophysiology of Language Processes in Psychopathology, 2827666, In addition, people with StPD can have decreased capacities for multisensory integration or contrast sensitivity,JOURNAL, Kent BW, Weinstein ZA, Passarelli V, Chen Y, Siever LJ, Deficient visual sensitivity in schizotypal personality disorder, Schizophrenia Research, 127, 1–3, 144–150, April 2011, 20541911, 10.1016/j.schres.2010.05.013, 2965789, JOURNAL, Harper L, Spencer E, Davidson C, Hutchinson CV, Selectively reduced contrast sensitivity in high schizotypy, Experimental Brain Research, 238, 1, 51–62, January 2020, 31781821, 6957544, 10.1007/s00221-019-05695-9, JOURNAL, Ferri F, Ambrosini E, Costantini M, Spatiotemporal processing of somatosensory stimuli in schizotypy, Scientific Reports, 6, 1, 38735, December 2016, 27934937, 10.1038/srep38735, 5146666, 2016NatSR...638735F, 11573502, JOURNAL, Dalal TC, Muller AM, Stevenson RA, The Relationship Between Multisensory Temporal Processing and Schizotypal Traits, Multisensory Research, 34, 5, 511–529, February 2021, 33706260, 10.1163/22134808-bja10044, 232206767,osf.io/79hdz/, either hyperreactive or impaired reactions to sensory input,JOURNAL, Mannan MR, Hiramatsu KI, Hokama H, Ohta H, Abnormalities of auditory event-related potentials in students with schizotypal personality disorder, Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 55, 5, 451–457, October 2001, 11555339, 10.1046/j.1440-1819.2001.00889.x, 21236561, JOURNAL, Niznikiewicz MA, Friedman M, Shenton ME, Voglmaier M, Nestor PG, Frumin M, Seidman L, Sutton J, McCarley RW, Processing sentence context in women with schizotypal personality disorder: an ERP study, Psychophysiology, 41, 3, 367–371, May 2004, 15102121, 2794422, 10.1111/1469-8986.2004.00173.x, JOURNAL, Dickey CC, Morocz IA, Niznikiewicz MA, Voglmaier M, Toner S, Khan U, Dreusicke M, Yoo SS, Shenton ME, McCarley RW, Auditory processing abnormalities in schizotypal personality disorder: an fMRI experiment using tones of deviant pitch and duration, Schizophrenia Research, 103, 1–3, 26–39, August 2008, 18555666, 10.1016/j.schres.2008.04.041, 3188851, slower response times, impaired attention,JOURNAL, Hur JW, Kim T, Cho KI, Kwon JS, Attenuated Resting-State Functional Anticorrelation between Attention and Executive Control Networks in Schizotypal Personality Disorder, Journal of Clinical Medicine, 10, 2, 312, January 2021, 33467694, 10.3390/jcm10020312, 7829946, free, JOURNAL, Trotman H, McMillan A, Walker E, Cognitive function and symptoms in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 32, 3, 489–497, July 2006, 16611879, 2632245, 10.1093/schbul/sbj069, poorer postural control,JOURNAL, Apthorp D, Bolbecker AR, Bartolomeo LA, O’Donnell BF, Hetrick WP, Postural Sway Abnormalities in Schizotypal Personality Disorder, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 45, 3, 512–521, April 2019, 30376125, 10.1093/schbul/sby141, 6483590, and difficulties with decision-making.JOURNAL, Niznikiewicz MA, Voglmaier MM, Shenton ME, Dickey CC, Seidman LJ, Teh E, Van Rhoads R, McCarley RW, Lateralized P3 deficit in schizotypal personality disorder, English, Biological Psychiatry, 48, 7, 702–705, October 2000, 11032982, 10.1016/S0006-3223(00)00938-0, 2845845, 18619922,nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:28520161, JOURNAL, Forsyth JK, Bolbecker AR, Mehta CS, Klaunig MJ, Steinmetz JE, O’Donnell BF, Hetrick WP, Cerebellar-dependent eyeblink conditioning deficits in schizophrenia spectrum disorders, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 38, 4, 751–759, June 2012, 21148238, 3406528, 10.1093/schbul/sbq148, They can have difficulties in memory,JOURNAL, Farmer CM, O’Donnell BF, Niznikiewicz MA, Voglmaier MM, McCarley RW, Shenton ME, Visual perception and working memory in schizotypal personality disorder, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 5, 781–788, May 2000, 10784472, 10.1176/appi.ajp.157.5.781, 2845849, JOURNAL, Shin YW, Krishnan G, Hetrick WP, Brenner CA, Shekhar A, Malloy FW, O’Donnell BF, Increased temporal variability of auditory event-related potentials in schizophrenia and Schizotypal Personality Disorder, Schizophrenia Research, 124, 1–3, 110–118, December 2010, 20817485, 10.1016/j.schres.2010.08.008, 3009463, JOURNAL, Goldstein KE, Hazlett EA, Savage KR, Berlin HA, Hamilton HK, Zelmanova Y, Look AE, Koenigsberg HW, Mitsis EM, Tang CY, McNamara M, Siever LJ, Cohen BH, New AS, Dorso- and ventro-lateral prefrontal volume and spatial working memory in schizotypal personality disorder, Behavioural Brain Research, 218, 2, 335–340, April 2011, 21115066, 10.1016/j.bbr.2010.11.042, 3049905, and may have frequent intrusive memories of events.JOURNAL, Jones V, Steel C, Schizotypal personality and vulnerability to involuntary autobiographical memories, Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 43, 3, 871–876, September 2012, 22269251, 10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.12.008, 7975363,centaur.reading.ac.uk/27711/2/27711Schizotypal_Personality_and_Vulnerability_to_Involuntary_Autobiographical_Memories.pdf, It is common for people with StPD to feel déjà vu or as if they can accurately predict future events due to abnormalities in the brain’s memory storage.JOURNAL, Arzy S, Mohr C, Molnar-Szakacs I, Blanke O, Schizotypal perceptual aberrations of time: correlation between score, behavior and brain activity, PLOS ONE, 6, 1, e16154, January 2011, 21267456, 3022658, 10.1371/journal.pone.0016154, 2011PLoSO...616154A, free,

Treatment

Medication

File:Risperidone-3D-balls.png|thumb|281x281px|Ball-and-stick modelBall-and-stick model(File:Cognitive behavioral therapy - basic tenets.svg|thumb|168x168px|Model of Cognitive behavioral therapy, a type of therapy used to treat StPD)StPD is rarely seen as the primary reason for treatment in a clinical setting, but it often occurs as a comorbid finding with other mental disorders. When patients with StPD have prescribed pharmaceuticals, they are usually prescribed antipsychotics,JOURNAL, Bachetti MC, Cirimbilli F, Pierotti V, Menculini G, Tortorella A, Moretti P, A Dual Therapeutic Setting Model Experience for Schizotypal Personality Disorder in an Inpatient Unit, Psychiatria Danubina, 32, Suppl 1, 194–199, September 2020, 32890389,www.psychiatria-danubina.com/UserDocsImages/pdf/dnb_vol32_noSuppl%201/dnb_vol32_noSuppl%201_194.pdf, Zagreb, JOURNAL, Rass O, Forsyth JK, Krishnan GP, Hetrick WP, Klaunig MJ, Breier A, O’Donnell BF, Brenner CA, Auditory steady state response in the schizophrenia, first-degree relatives, and schizotypal personality disorder, Schizophrenia Research, 136, 1–3, 143–149, April 2012, 22285558, 10.1016/j.schres.2012.01.003, 3298621, JOURNAL, Dadić-Hero E, Ruzić K, Medved P, Tatalović-Vorkapić S, Graovac M, Antipsychotic side-effect - potential risk of patients rejecting their treatments, Psychiatria Danubina, 22, 1, 105–107, March 2010, 20305602,pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20305602/, however, the use of neuroleptic drugs in the schizotypal population is in great doubt.BOOK, Handbook of personality disorders : theory, research, and treatment, Livesley W, Guilford Press, 2001, 978-1-57230-629-5, 45750508, The antipsychotics which show promise as treatments for StPD include olanzapine,JOURNAL, Keshavan M, Shad M, Soloff P, Schooler N, Efficacy and tolerability of olanzapine in the treatment of schizotypal personality disorder, Schizophrenia Research, 71, 1, 97–101, November 2004, 15374577, 10.1016/j.schres.2003.12.008, 12551427, risperidone,JOURNAL, McClure MM, Koenigsberg HW, Reynolds D, Goodman M, New A, Trestman R, Silverman J, Harvey PD, Siever LJ, The effects of risperidone on the cognitive performance of individuals with schizotypal personality disorder, en-US, Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 29, 4, 396–398, August 2009, 19593186, 10.1097/JCP.0b013e3181accfd9, 4176874, JOURNAL, Kirchner SK, Roeh A, Nolden J, Hasan A, Diagnosis and treatment of schizotypal personality disorder: evidence from a systematic review, npj Schizophrenia, 4, 1, 20, October 2018, 30282970, 10.1038/s41537-018-0062-8, 6170383, 52914783, haloperidol,JOURNAL, Jakobsen KD, Skyum E, Hashemi N, Schjerning O, Fink-Jensen A, Nielsen J, Antipsychotic treatment of schizotypy and schizotypal personality disorder: a systematic review, Journal of Psychopharmacology, 31, 4, 397–405, April 2017, 28347257, 10.1177/0269881117695879, 12170130, and thiothixene.{{Citation | vauthors = Miyazaki M, Simeon D, Hollander E |title=Treatment of Personality Disorders |date=2017-05-01 |url=https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.books.9781615371624.as51 |work=The American Psychiatric Association Publishing Textbook of Psychopharmacology |publisher=American Psychiatric Association Publishing |doi=10.1176/appi.books.9781615371624.as51 |isbn=978-1-58562-523-9 |access-date=2022-10-27 }} The antidepressant fluoxetine may also be helpful.JOURNAL, Markovitz PJ, Calabrese JR, Schulz SC, Meltzer HY, Fluoxetine in the treatment of borderline and schizotypal personality disorders, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 8, 1064–1067, August 1991, 1853957, 10.1176/ajp.148.8.1064, While people with schizotypal personality disorder and other attenuated psychotic-spectrum disorders may have a good outcome with neuroleptics in the short term, long-term follow-up suggests significant impairment in daily functioning compared to schizotypal and even schizophrenic people without antipsychotic drug exposure.JOURNAL, Harrow M, Jobe TH, Faull RN, Yang J, A 20-Year multi-followup longitudinal study assessing whether antipsychotic medications contribute to work functioning in schizophrenia, Psychiatry Research, 256, 267–274, October 2017, 28651219, 5661946, 10.1016/j.psychres.2017.06.069, Positive, negative, and depressive symptoms were shown to be improved by the used of olanzapine, an antipsychotic.JOURNAL, Koch J, Modesitt T, Palmer M, Ward S, Martin B, Wyatt R, Thomas C, Review of pharmacologic treatment in cluster A personality disorders, The Mental Health Clinician, 6, 2, 75–81, March 2016, 29955451, 6007578, 10.9740/mhc.2016.03.75, Those with comorbid OCD and StPD were most positively affected by the use of olanzapine, and showed worse outcomes with the use of clomipramine, an antidepressant. Antidepressants are also sometimes prescribed, whether for StPD proper or for comorbid anxiety and depression. However, there is some ambiguity in the efficacy of antidepressants, as many studies have only tested people with StPD and comorbid obsessive-compulsive disorder or borderline personality disorder. They have shown little efficacy for treating dysthymia and anhedonia related to StPD. Both of these medications are the most frequently prescribed medication for StPD, though the use and efficacy of them should be evaluated differently for every case. The use of stimulants has also shown some efficacy, especially for those with worsened cognitive and attentional issues. Patients that suffer from concurrent psychosis should be monitored more closely if stimulants are used as part of their treatment. Other drugs which may be effective include pergolide,JOURNAL, McClure MM, Harvey PD, Goodman M, Triebwasser J, New A, Koenigsberg HW, Sprung LJ, Flory JD, Siever LJ, Pergolide treatment of cognitive deficits associated with schizotypal personality disorder: continued evidence of the importance of the dopamine system in the schizophrenia spectrum, Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 6, 1356–1362, May 2010, 20130535, 10.1038/npp.2010.5, 3055340, 7149320, guanfacine,JOURNAL, Graff FS, McClure MM, Siever LJ, 2014-12-01, Remediation and Cognitive Enhancers in Schizotypal Personality Disorder, Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry, en, 1, 4, 369–375, 10.1007/s40501-014-0027-0, 145447269, 2196-3061, free, JOURNAL, McClure MM, Graff F, Triebwasser J, Perez-Rodriguez M, Rosell DR, Koenigsberg H, Hazlett EA, Siever LJ, Harvey PD, New AS, Guanfacine Augmentation of a Combined Intervention of Computerized Cognitive Remediation Therapy and Social Skills Training for Schizotypal Personality Disorder, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 4, 307–314, April 2019, 30654644, 10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.18030349, 6443471, 58626454, JOURNAL, McClure MM, Barch DM, Romero MJ, Minzenberg MJ, Triebwasser J, Harvey PD, Siever LJ, The effects of guanfacine on context processing abnormalities in schizotypal personality disorder, Biological Psychiatry, 61, 10, 1157–1160, May 2007, 16950221, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.06.034, Multiple Genotypes and Brain Development in Schizophrenia, 17772053, free, JOURNAL, Arnsten AF, Jin LE, Guanfacine for the treatment of cognitive disorders: a century of discoveries at Yale, The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 85, 1, 45–58, March 2012, 22461743, 3313539, and dihydrexidine.JOURNAL, Rosell DR, Zaluda LC, McClure MM, Perez-Rodriguez MM, Strike KS, Barch DM, Harvey PD, Girgis RR, Hazlett EA, Mailman RB, Abi-Dargham A, Lieberman JA, Siever LJ, Effects of the D1 dopamine receptor agonist dihydrexidine (DAR-0100A) on working memory in schizotypal personality disorder, Neuropsychopharmacology, 40, 2, 446–453, January 2015, 25074637, 10.1038/npp.2014.192, 4443959, 30635726, JOURNAL, Arnsten AF, Girgis RR, Gray DL, Mailman RB, Novel Dopamine Therapeutics for Cognitive Deficits in Schizophrenia, Biological Psychiatry, 81, 1, 67–77, January 2017, 26946382, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.12.028, Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia, 4949134, JOURNAL, McClure M, Perez-Rodriguez MM, Rosell D, Ejebe K, Siever L, New A, 2019, T38. Dopamine Enhancement of Verbal Learning in the Schizophrenia Spectrum, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 45, Suppl 2, S218, 10.1093/schbul/sbz019.318, 0586-7614, 6455598,

Therapy

According to Theodore Millon, schizotypal personality disorder is one of the easiest personality disorders to identify but one of the most difficult to treat with psychotherapy. Cognitive remediation therapy,JOURNAL, McGurk SR, Cognitive Remediation and Social Skills Training for Schizotypal Personality Disorder: Greater Gains With Guanfacine?, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 4, 265–266, April 2019, 30929501, 10.1176/appi.ajp.2019.19020144, 89618769, free, JOURNAL, McClure M, Graff F, Perez-Rodriguez M, Rosell D, Hazlett E, New AS, Harvey P, Siever L, 2017-03-01, SA25. Guanfacine Augmentation of Cognitive Remediation Therapy in the Schizophrenia Spectrum: Prospects for Improving Cognitive Performance and Functional Skills, Schizophrenia Bulletin, en, 43, suppl_1, S122, 10.1093/schbul/sbx023.024, 5475916, 0586-7614, metacognitive therapy, supportive psychotherapy,{{Citation | vauthors = Stone MH |title=Paranoid, Schizotypal, and Schizoid Personality Disorders |date=2014-05-05 |url=https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.books.9781585625048.gg68 |work=Gabbard?s Treatments of Psychiatric Disorders |publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing |doi=10.1176/appi.books.9781585625048.gg68 |isbn=978-1-58562-442-3 |access-date=2022-10-30}} social skills trainingJOURNAL, McClure, Margaret M., Graff, Fiona, Triebwasser, Joseph, Perez-Rodriguez, Mercedes, Rosell, Daniel R., Koenigsberg, Harold, Hazlett, Erin A., Siever, Larry J., Harvey, Philip D., New, Antonia S., 2019-01-18, Guanfacine Augmentation of a Combined Intervention of Computerized Cognitive Remediation Therapy and Social Skills Training for Schizotypal Personality Disorder, American Journal of Psychiatry, en, 176, 4, 307–314, 10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.18030349, 0002-953X, 6443471, 30654644, and cognitive-behavioral therapy can be effective treatments for the disorder.JOURNAL, Jeppesen UN, Due AS, Mariegaard L, Pinkham A, Vos M, Veling W, Nordentoft M, Glenthøj LB, Face Your Fears: Virtual reality-based cognitive behavioral therapy (VR-CBT) versus standard CBT for paranoid ideations in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders: a randomized clinical trial, Trials, 23, 1, 658, August 2022, 35971137, 9377061, 10.1186/s13063-022-06614-0, free, JOURNAL, Ryan A, Macdonald A, Walker E, 2013, The Treatment of Adolescents With Schizotypal Personality Disorder and Related Conditions: A Practice-Oriented Review of the Literature,doi.wiley.com/10.1111/cpsp.12050, Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, en, 20, 4, 408–424, 10.1111/cpsp.12050, Wiley Online Library, Increased social interaction with others may be able to help limit symptoms of StPD.JOURNAL, Raine A, Mellingen K, Liu J, Venables P, Mednick SA, Effects of environmental enrichment at ages 3-5 years on schizotypal personality and antisocial behavior at ages 17 and 23 years, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 9, 1627–1635, September 2003, 12944338, 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.9.1627, Support is especially important for schizotypal patients with predominant paranoid symptoms, because they may have difficulties even in highly structured groups.BOOK, The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of personality disorders, Oldham J, Skodol AE, Bender DS, American Psychiatric Pub, 2005, 978-1-58562-159-0, 56733258, Andrew E. Skodol, Persons with StPD usually consider themselves to be simply eccentric or nonconformist; the degree to which they consider their social nonconformity a problem differs from the degree to which it is considered a problem in psychiatry. It is difficult to gain rapport with people with StPD because increasing familiarity and intimacy often increase their level of anxiety and discomfort.JOURNAL, Siever LJ, 1992, Schizophrenia spectrum disorders, Review of Psychiatry, 11, 25–42, Therapy for StPD must be flexible to face emergencies or unique challenges.

Diagnosis

Formal diagnostic criteria

StPD is characterized by 5 or more of the following:WEB, Schizotypal Personality Disorder (STPD) - Psychiatric Disorders,www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/personality-disorders/schizotypal-personality-disorder-stpd, 2023-03-11, Merck Manuals Professional Edition, en-US,

• Ideas of reference (but not delusions of reference)
• Odd beliefs or magical thinking (e.g. the supernatural or special connection or bond to an abuser)
• Unusual perceptional experiences (hearing a voice, dissociative experiences, illusions, etc.)
• Odd thought and speech (e.g. jumping from one topic to another)
• Eccentric behavior and/or appearance
• Paranoid ideation
• Moods and facial expressions that don’t match each other or the situation
• Few to no close supports
• Excessive social anxiety that remains even with familiar people

These symptoms must have begun by early adulthood.

Differential diagnosis {| class“wikitable“|+

!Diagnosis!DetailsPsychosis>psychotic symptoms|Unlike delusional disorder, schizophrenia, or mood disorders with psychotic features, StPD is not characterized by a persistent period of psychotic symptoms. StPD symptoms must also persist when psychotic symptoms are not present.|Personality change due to another medical condition|Symptoms similar to those of StPD can appear due to other medical conditions that affect the central nervous system or substance use disorders.|Other personality disordersparanoid personality disorder and schizoid personality disorder can also be socially detached and have Reduced affect display>blunted affects, but without the Cognitive distortion or perceptual distortions of StPD. Individuals with StPD and people with avoidant personality disorder can have limited close relationships. However, people with AvPD rarely have the eccentric behaviour of StPD. Psychotic-like symptoms can also appear in borderline personality disorder, but those with BPD fear social isolation while those with StPD are comfortable with it. People with StPD are also usually less impulsive than people with BPD. Individuals with narcissistic personality disorder may also appear socially alienated, however, this is due to fears of having flaws noticed by others.HTTPS://ARCHIVE.ORG/DETAILS/DIAGNOSTICSTATIS0005UNSE/PAGE/655 PUBLISHER=AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC ASSOCIATION, AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC ASSOCIATION ISBN=978-0-89042-555-8 655–659 >OCLC=830807378, Differential diagnosis with the following disorders should also be considered:

• Other disorders with psychotic symptoms: (e.g., schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or depressive disorder with psychotic features)
• Paranoid, schizoid, or avoidant personality disorders
• Dissociative identity disorder (DID){{citation needed|date=April 2023}}
• Communication disorders{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}

Screening

There are various methods of screening for schizotypal personality. The Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ) measures nine traits of StPD using a self-report assessment.JOURNAL, Barrantes-Vidal N, Grant P, Kwapil TR, The role of schizotypy in the study of the etiology of schizophrenia spectrum disorders, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 41, Suppl 2, S408–S416, March 2015, 25810055, 4373635, 10.1093/schbul/sbu191, The nine traits referenced are Ideas of Reference, Excessive Social Anxiety, Odd Beliefs or Magical Thinking, Unusual Perceptual Experiences, Odd or Eccentric Behavior, No Close Friends, Odd Speech, Constricted Affect, and Suspiciousness. A study found that of the participants who scored in the top 10th percentile of all the SPQ scores, 55% were clinically diagnosed with StPD.JOURNAL, Raine A, The SPQ: a scale for the assessment of schizotypal personality based on DSM-III-R criteria, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 17, 4, 555–564, 1991, 1805349, 10.1093/schbul/17.4.555, free, It has been adapted into a computerized adaptive version, known as the SPQ-CAT.JOURNAL, Moore TM, Calkins ME, Reise SP, Gur RC, Gur RE, Development and public release of a computerized adaptive (CAT) version of the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire, Psychiatry Research, 263, 250–256, May 2018, 29625786, 10.1016/j.psychres.2018.02.022, 5911247, 5004186, A method that measures the risk of developing psychosis through self-reports is the Wisconsin Schizotypy Scale (WSS).JOURNAL, Winterstein BP, Silvia PJ, Kwapil TR, Kaufman JC, Reiter-Palmon R, Wigert, 2011, Brief assessment of schizotypy: Developing short forms of the Wisconsin Schizotypy Scales, Personality and Individual Differences, en, 51, 8, 920–924, 10.1016/j.paid.2011.07.027, free, The WSS divides schizotypal personality traits into 4 scales for Perceptual Aberration, Magical Ideation, Revised Social Anhedonia, and Physical Anhedonia.Schizotypal Disorder {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151102042503apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2015/en#/F21#/F21|date=2015-11-02}} in ICD-10: Clinical descriptions and guidelines. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323025330www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/bluebook.pdf#84#84|date=2014-03-23}}JOURNAL, Gross GM, Mellin J, Silvia PJ, Barrantes-Vidal N, Kwapil TR, Comparing the factor structure of the Wisconsin Schizotypy Scales and the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire, Personality Disorders, 5, 4, 397–405, October 2014, 25314229, 10.1037/per0000090,libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/T_Kwapil_Comparing_2014.pdf, A comparison of the SPQ and the WSS suggests that these measures should be cautiously used for screening of StPD.When screening for StPD, it is difficult to distinguish between schizotypal personality disorder and autism spectrum disorder.JOURNAL, Parvaiz, Rizwan, Vindbjerg, Erik, Crespi, Bernard, Happe, Francesca, Schalbroeck, Rik, Al-Sayegh, Zainab, Danielsen, Ida-Marie, Tonge, Bruce, Videbech, Poul, Abu-Akel, Ahmad, Protocol for the development and testing of the schiZotypy Autism Questionnaire (ZAQ) in adults: a new screening tool to discriminate autism spectrum disorder from schizotypal disorder, BMC Psychiatry, Springer Science and Business Media LLC, 23, 1, 2023-03-28, 200, 1471-244X, 10.1186/s12888-023-04690-3, 36978026, 10044373, free, In order to develop better screening tools, researchers are looking into the importance of ipseity disturbance, which is characteristic of schizophrenia spectrum disorders such as StPD but not of autism.JOURNAL, Nilsson, Maria, Arnfred, Sidse, Carlsson, Jessica, Nylander, Lena, Pedersen, Lennart, Mortensen, Erik Lykke, Handest, Peter, 2019-05-03, Self-Disorders in Asperger Syndrome Compared to Schizotypal Disorder: A Clinical Study, Schizophrenia Bulletin, Oxford University Press, 46, 1, 121–129, 10.1093/schbul/sbz036, 0586-7614, 34688345, free, 6942161,

Millon’s subtypes

Theodore Millon proposes two subtypes of schizotypal personality.BOOK, Millon T, Theodore Millon, Personality disorders in modern life, Chapter 12 – The Schizotypal Personality, Wiley, 2004, 978-0-471-23734-1, 57291241, 403,dlia.ir/Scientific/e_book/Medicine/Internal_Medicine/RC_435_571_Psychiatry_/017437.pdf#420,dlia.ir/Scientific/e_book/Medicine/Internal_Medicine/RC_435_571_Psychiatry_/017437.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20170207112700dlia.ir/Scientific/e_book/Medicine/Internal_Medicine/RC_435_571_Psychiatry_/017437.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20170207112700dlia.ir/Scientific/e_book/Medicine/Internal_Medicine/RC_435_571_Psychiatry_/017437.pdf, 2017-02-07, WEB, The Millon Personality Group, Eccentric/Schizotypal Personality, Millon Theory, 8 March 2017,www.millonpersonality.com/theory/diagnostic-taxonomy/schizotypal.htm,www.millonpersonality.com/theory/diagnostic-taxonomy/schizotypal.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20170308045332www.millonpersonality.com/theory/diagnostic-taxonomy/schizotypal.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20170308045332www.millonpersonality.com/theory/diagnostic-taxonomy/schizotypal.htm, 8 March 2017, live, 5 April 2019, Any individual with schizotypal personality disorder may exhibit either one of the following somewhat different subtypes (note that Millon believes it is rare for a personality to show one pure variant, but rather a mixture of one major variant with one or more secondary variants):{| class=“wikitable”!Subtype!Description!Personality traits| Insipid schizotypalschizoid personality disorder>schizoid, depressive personality disorder and dependent personality disorder>dependent features.| Sense of strangeness and nonbeing; overtly drab, sluggish, inexpressive; internally bland, barren, indifferent, and insensitive; obscured, vague, and tangential thoughts.| Timorous schizotypalavoidant personality disorder>avoidant and negativistic features.| Warily apprehensive, watchful, suspicious, guarded, shrinking, deadens excess sensitivity; alienated from self and others; intentionally blocks, reverses, or disqualifies own thoughts.Millon’s typology of personality disorders was influential in the development of the DSM-III, particularly with respect to distinguishing between schizoid, schizotypal and avoidant personality disorders.JOURNAL, Livesley, W. John, West, Malcolm, The DSM-III Distinction between Schizoid and Avoidant Personality Disorders, The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, SAGE Publications, 31, 1, 1986, 0706-7437, 10.1177/070674378603100112, 59–62, 3948107, 46283956, These had previously been considered different surface-level expressions of the same underlying personality structure, and some psychologists, particularly those working in psychoanalytic or psychodynamic traditions, still take these personality disorders to be essentially similar.BOOK, McWilliams, Nancy, Psychoanalytic Diagnosis: Understanding Personality Structure in the Clinical Process, Psychoanalytic Diagnosis, The Guilford Press, 2011, 978-1-60918-494-0, 2nd, 199, Nancy McWilliams, BOOK, Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual, The Guilford Press, 2017, Nancy, McWilliams, Vittorio, Lingiardi, 978-1-4625-3055-7, 2nd, Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual,

Common comorbidities

• Antisocial personality disorder
• Avoidant personality disorder
• Bipolar disorderJOURNAL, Correll CU, Smith CW, Auther AM, McLaughlin D, Shah M, Foley C, Olsen R, Lencz T, Kane JM, Cornblatt BA, Predictors of remission, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder in adolescents with brief psychotic disorder or psychotic disorder not otherwise specified considered at very high risk for schizophrenia, Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 18, 5, 475–490, October 2008, 18928412, 10.1089/cap.2007.110, 2779049,
• Borderline personality disorderJOURNAL, Pulay AJ, Stinson FS, Dawson DA, Goldstein RB, Chou SP, Huang B, Saha TD, Smith SM, Pickering RP, Ruan WJ, Hasin DS, Grant BF, Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV schizotypal personality disorder: results from the wave 2 national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions, Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 11, 2, 53–67, 2009, 19617934, 2707116, 10.4088/pcc.08m00679,
• DysthymiaJOURNAL, Pulay AJ, Stinson FS, Dawson DA, Goldstein RB, Chou SP, Huang B, Saha TD, Smith SM, Pickering RP, Ruan WJ, Hasin DS, Grant BF, Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV schizotypal personality disorder: results from the wave 2 national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions, English, Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 11, 2, 53–67, 2009-04-16, 19617934, 10.4088/PCC.08m00679, 2707116, BOOK, Comprehensive handbook of psychopathology, Sutker P, Kluwer Academic, 2002, 978-0-306-46490-4, 3rd, 50322422,
• Narcissistic personality disorder
• Obsessive-compulsive disorderJOURNAL, Perris F, Fabrazzo M, De Santis V, Luciano M, Sampogna G, Fiorillo A, Catapano F, Comorbidity of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Schizotypal Personality Disorder: Clinical Response and Treatment Resistance to Pharmacotherapy in a 3-Year Follow-Up Naturalistic Study, Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 386, 2019, 31263430, 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00386, 6589899, free, BOOK, Essential psychiatry, Murray R, Cambridge University Press, 2008, 978-0-521-60408-6, 4th, 298067373, JOURNAL, Attademo L, Bernardini F, Schizotypal personality disorder in clinical obsessive-compulsive disorder samples: a brief overview, CNS Spectrums, 26, 5, 468–480, October 2021, 32713392, 10.1017/S1092852920001716, 220796175, JOURNAL, Fossati A, Borroni S, 2008, When ‘entities’ are as intrusive as obsessions: A case study of the co-occurrence of obsessive–compulsive disorder and schizotypal personality disorder diagnoses,onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pmh.42, Personality and Mental Health, en, 2, 3, 192–200, 10.1002/pmh.42, JOURNAL, Cavanna AE, Robertson MM, Critchley HD, Schizotypal personality traits in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome, Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 116, 6, 385–391, December 2007, 17986097, 2275799, 10.1111/j.1600-0404.2007.00879.x,
• Major depressive disorder
• Paranoid personality disorderBOOK, Psychiatry, Tasman A, Wiley-Blackwell, 2008, 978-0-470-06571-6, 3rd, 264703257,
• Post-traumatic stress disorder
• Schizoid personality disorder
• SchizophreniaJOURNAL, Walker E, Kestler L, Bollini A, Hochman KM, Schizophrenia: etiology and course, Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 1, 401–430, 2004, 14744221, 10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141950, Annual Reviews, JOURNAL, Raine A, Schizotypal personality: neurodevelopmental and psychosocial trajectories, Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2, 291–326, 2006, 17716072, 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095318, JOURNAL, Matsui M, Sumiyoshi T, Kato K, Yoneyama E, Kurachi M, Neuropsychological profile in patients with schizotypal personality disorder or schizophrenia, Psychological Reports, 94, 2, 387–397, April 2004, 15154161, 10.2466/pr0.94.2.387-397, SAGE Publications, 41869819, JOURNAL, Haznedar MM, Buchsbaum MS, Hazlett EA, Shihabuddin L, New A, Siever LJ, Cingulate gyrus volume and metabolism in the schizophrenia spectrum, Schizophrenia Research, 71, 2–3, 249–262, December 2004, 15474896, 10.1016/j.schres.2004.02.025, 28889346,
• Substance use disordersJOURNAL, Kerridge BT, Saha TD, Hasin DS, DSM-IV schizotypal personality disorder: a taxometric analysis among individuals with and without substance use disorders in the general population, Mental Health and Substance Use, 7, 4, 446–460, 2014, 26322122, 4549000, 10.1080/17523281.2014.946076,
• Social anxiety disorder
• Dissociative identity disorderJOURNAL, Giesbrecht, Timo, Merckelbach, Harald, Kater, Maartje, Sluis, Anne Fetsje, October 2007, Why dissociation and schizotypy overlap: the joint influence of fantasy proneness, cognitive failures, and childhood trauma,pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18043521/, The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195, 10, 812–818, 10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181568137, 0022-3018, 18043521, 45086235, @unknown{unknown,

author = {Å ram, Zlatko},year = {2018},month = {03},title = {Childhood Trauma, the Occult, Dissociative Identity Disorder, and Schizotypal Personality Disorder: Relations on a Sample of Psychiatric Outpatients}www.researchgate.net/publication/323526162_Childhood_Trauma_the_Occult_Dissociative_Identity_Disorder_and_Schizotypal_Personality_Disorder_Relations_on_a_Sample_of_Psychiatric_OutpatientsWEB, APA PsycNet,psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-02549-015, 2023-03-12, psycnet.apa.org, en,

See also

• Boundaries of the mind
• DSM-5 codes (personality disorders)
• Paranoid personality disorder
• Schizoid personality disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Schizothymia
• Schizotypy
• Dissociative Identity Disorder
• ChÅ«nibyō

References

{{Reflist}}

External links

{{Medical resources|ICD10={{ICD10|F|21||f|20}}|ICD9={{ICD9|301.22}}|MeshID=D012569|MedlinePlus=001525}}{{ICD-10 personality disorders}}