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Sarvastivada
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{{short description|Early school of Buddhism, circa 3rd century BCE}}{{Italic title}}{{EngvarB|date=January 2014}}{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}File:Tapa Shotor seated Buddha (Niche V1).jpg|thumb|Seated Buddha from the SarvÄstivÄdin monastery of (Tapa Shotor]], 2nd century CEJOURNAL, The Geography of Gandhara Art, Differences and similarities in GandhÄran art production: the case of the modelling school of Haá¸á¸a (Afghanistan), Alexandra, Vanleene, 2019, Archaeopress Archaeology, 978-1-78969-186-3, 143â163,www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/PublicFiles/media/Geography%20of%20Gandharan%20Art%20published%20files/10_32028-9781789691863P143-163.pdf, {{rp|158}})The SarvÄstivÄda (; {{cjkv|c=說ä¸åæé¨|p=ShuÅyÄ«qièyÇu Bù|j=ãã¤ãã£ãããã¶|k=ì¤ì¼ì²´ì ë¶}};) was one of the early Buddhist schools established around the reign of Ashoka (third century BCE).Westerhoff, The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy in the First Millennium CE, 2018, p. 60. It was particularly known as an Abhidharma tradition, with a unique set of seven canonical Abhidharma texts.Westerhoff, 2018, p. 61.The SarvÄstivÄdins were one of the most influential Buddhist monastic groups, flourishing throughout North India, especially Kashmir and Central Asia, until the 7th century CE. The orthodox Kashmiri branch of the school composed the large and encyclopedic Abhidharma MahÄvibhÄá¹£a ÅÄstra around the time of the reign of Kanishka (c. 127â150 CE). Because of this, orthodox SarvÄstivÄdins who upheld the doctrines in the MahÄvibhÄá¹£a were called VaibhÄá¹£ikas.According to the TheravÄdin DÄ«pavaá¹sa, the SarvÄstivÄdins emerged from the older MahÄ«ÅÄsaka school, but the ÅÄriputraparipá¹cchÄ and the Samayabhedoparacanacakra state that the MahÄ«ÅÄsaka emerged from the SarvÄstivÄda.BOOK, Baruah, Bibhuti, Buddhist sects and sectarianism,archive.org/details/bub_gb_s1PZAMD13SMC, 2000, Sarup & Sons, New Delhi, 978-8176251525, 1st, , p. 50{{Citation | last1 =Buswell | first1 =Robert E. | last2 =Lopez | first2 =Donald S. | year =2013 |title =The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism | publisher =Princeton University Press}} The SarvÄstivÄdins are believed to have given rise to the MÅ«lasarvÄstivÄda and SautrÄntika schools, although the relationship between these groups has not yet been fully determined.- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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Name
{{EarlyBuddhism}}SarvÄstivÄda is a Sanskrit term that can be glossed as: “the theory of all that exists”. The SarvÄstivÄda argued that all dharmas (phenomena) exist in the past, present and future, the “three times”. Vasubandhu’s AbhidharmakoÅa-bhÄsya states, “He who affirms the existence of the dharmas of the three time periods [past, present and future] is held to be a SarvÄstivÄdin.“{{sfn|Vasubandhu|de La Vallée-Poussin|1990|p=807}}Although there is some dispute over how the word “SarvÄstivÄda” is to be analyzed, the general consensus is that it is to be parsed into three parts: sarva “all” or “every” + asti “exist” + vada “speak”, “say” or “theory”. This equates perfectly with the Chinese term, ShuÅyÄ«qièyÇu bù ({{zh|c=說ä¸åæé¨}}),Taisho 27, n1545 which is literally “the sect that speaks of the existence of everything,” as used by Xuanzang and other translators.The SarvÄstivÄda was also known by other names, particularly hetuvada and yuktivada. Hetuvada comes from hetu â ‘cause’, which indicates their emphasis on causation and conditionality. Yuktivada comes from yukti â ‘reason’ or even ‘logic’, which echoes their use of rational argument and syllogism.Origination and history
File:Mathura Katra fragment A-66.jpg|thumb|Fragment of a Buddha stele in the name of a “Kshatrapa lady” named Naá¹da ((File:Mathura Katra fragment A-66 inscription ‘Namdaye Kshatrapa’.jpg|70px) Naá¹daye Kshatrapa), from the Art of Mathura.For a modern image see Figure 9 in JOURNAL, Myer, Prudence R., Bodhisattvas and Buddhas: Early Buddhist Images from MathurÄ, Artibus Asiae, 1986, 47, 2, 121â123, 10.2307/3249969, 0004-3648, 3249969, BOOK, Lüders, Heinrich, Mathura Inscriptions, 1960, 31â32,archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.108369, The stele is dedicated to the Bodhisattva “for the welfare and happiness of all sentient beings for the acceptance of the Sarvastivadas”. (Northern Satraps]] period, 1st century CE.JOURNAL, Myer, Prudence R., Bodhisattvas and Buddhas: Early Buddhist Images from MathurÄ, Artibus Asiae, 1986, 47, 2, 111â113, 10.2307/3249969, 0004-3648, 3249969, )File:Kalawan copper-plate inscription of the year 134.jpg|thumb|Copper-plate inscription mentioning the Sarvastivadas, in the year 134 of the Azes era, i.e. 84 CE, Kalawan, (Taxila]]BOOK, Sastri, Hirananda, Epigraphia Indica vol.21, 1931, 259,archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.9580, )Early history
According to Charles Prebish, “there is a great deal of mystery surrounding the rise and early development of the SarvÄstivÄdin school.”Buddhism: A Modern Perspective. Charles S. Prebish. Penn State Press: 1975. {{ISBN|0-271-01195-5}} pg 42-43 According to Dhammajoti, “its presence, as well as that of its rival â the VibhajyavÄda lineage â in the time of Emperor AÅoka is beyond doubt. Since AÅoka’s reign is around 268â232 B.C.E., this means that at least by the middle of the 3rd century B.C.E., it had already developed into a distinct school.“Dhammajoti (2009), p. 55.In Central Asia, several Buddhist monastic groups were historically prevalent. According to some accounts, the SarvÄstivÄdins emerged from the Sthavira nikÄya, a small group of conservatives, who split from the reformist majority MahÄsÄá¹ghikas at the Second Buddhist council. According to this account, they were expelled from Magadha, and moved to northwestern India where they developed into the SarvÄstivÄdin school.A number of scholars have identified three distinct major phases of missionary activity seen in the history of Buddhism in Central Asia, which are associated with respectively the Dharmaguptaka, SarvÄstivÄda, and the MÅ«lasarvÄstivÄda,Cox, Dessein & Willemen, 1998, p. 126 and the origins of the SarvÄstivÄda have also been related to Ashoka sending Majjhantika (Sanskrit: MadhyÄntika) on a mission to Gandhara, which had an early presence of the SarvÄstivÄda. The SarvÄstivÄdins in turn are believed to have given rise to the MÅ«lasarvÄstivÄda sect, although the relationship between these two groups has not yet been fully determined. According to Prebish, “this episode corresponds well with one SarvÄstivÄdin tradition stating that Madhyantika converted the city of Kasmir, which seems to have close ties with Gandhara.“A third tradition says that a community of SarvÄstivÄdin monks was established at Mathura by the patriarch Upagupta. In the SarvÄstivÄdin tradition Upagupta is said to have been the fifth patriarch after MahÄkaÅyapa, Änanda, MadhyÄntika, and ÅÄá¹akavÄsin, and in the Ch’an tradition he is regarded as the fourth.Kushan era
File:Dharmarajika_stupa_taxila.jpg|thumb|right|A Kushan era votive stupa from Mohra Muradu, TaxilaTaxilaThe SarvÄstivÄda enjoyed the patronage of Kanishka (c. 127â150 CE) emperor of the Kushan Empire, during which time they were greatly strengthened, and became one of the dominant sects of Buddhism in north India for centuries, flourishing throughout Northwest India, North India, and Central Asia.When the SarvÄstivÄda school held a synod in Kashmir during the reign of Kanishka II (c. 158â176), the most important SarvÄstivÄda Abhidharma text, the Astagrantha of Katyayaniputra was rewritten and revised in Sanskrit. This revised text was now known as JñÄnaprasthÄna (“Course of Knowledge“). Though the Gandharan Astagrantha had many vibhaá¹£as (commentaries), the new Kashmiri JñÄnaprasthÄna had a Sanskrit MahÄvibhaá¹£a, compiled by the Kashmir SarvÄstivÄda synod.Westerhoff, 2018, p. 61. The JñÄnaprasthÄna and its MahÄvibhaá¹£a, were then declared to be the new orthodoxy by Kashmiris, who called themselves VaibhÄá¹£ikas.File:Dharmarajika_stupa,Taxila.jpg|thumb|The Dharmarajika Stupa and monastery ruins, a major Buddhist site in TaxilaTaxilaThis new VaibhÄá¹£ika orthodoxy, however, was not readily accepted by all SarvÄstivÄdins. Some “Western masters” from Gandhara and Bactria had divergent views which disagreed with the new Kashmiri orthodoxy. These disagreements can be seen in post-MahÄvibhaá¹£a works, such as the *Tattvasiddhi-ÅÄstra (æ實è«), the *Abhidharmahá¹daya (T no. 1550) and its commentaries (T no. 1551, no. 1552), the AbhidharmakoÅakÄrikÄ of Vasubandhu and its commentaries (who critiqued some orthodox views), and the *NyÄyÄnusÄra (Ny) of master Saá¹ghabhadra (ca fifth century CE) who formulated the most robust VaibhÄá¹£ika response to the new criticisms.Dhammajoti (2009), p. 57.Tarim Basin
When the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang visited Kucha in the Tarim Basin in 630 CE, he received the favours of Suvará¹adeva, the son and successor of Suvará¹apuá¹£pa, the non-Mahayana Buddhist king of Kucha.BOOK, Grousset, René, René Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia,archive.org/details/empireofsteppes00grou, registration, 20 November 2016, 1970, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ, 978-0-8135-1304-1, 99, Xuanzang described in many details the characteristics of Kucha, and probably visited the Kizil Caves.WEB, Waugh, Daniel (Historian, University of Washington), Kizil,depts.washington.edu/silkroad/exhibit/religion/buddhism/tarim/kizil.html, depts.washington.edu, Washington University, 30 December 2020, Of the religion of the people of Kucha, he says that they were Sarvastivadins:BOOK, Beal, Samuel, Si-yu-ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World : Translated from the Chinese of Hiuen Tsiang (A.D. 629), 2000, Psychology Press, 978-0-415-24469-5, 19,books.google.com/books?id=kmISY_Z7bEgC&pg=PA19, en, , also available in: WEB, Kingdom of K’iu-chi (Kucha or Kuche) [Chapter 2],www.wisdomlib.org/south-asia/book/buddhist-records-of-the-western-world-xuanzang/d/doc220147.html#note-e-86576, www.wisdomlib.org, 30 December 2020, 27 June 2018, {{blockquote|There are about one hundred convents (saá¹ ghÄrÄmas) in this country, with five thousand and more disciples. These belong to the Little Vehicle of the school of the SarvÄstivÄdas (Shwo-yih-tsai-yu-po). Their doctrine (teaching of SÅ«tras) and their rules of discipline (principles of the Vinaya) are like those of India, and those who read them use the same (originals).|Xuanzang, on the religion of Kucha.}}Sub-schools
SarvÄstivÄda was a widespread group, and there were different sub-schools or sects throughout its history, the most influential ones being the VaibhÄá¹£ika and the SautrÄntika schools. According to Cox, Willemen and Dessein: we have, basically, to differentiate the original SarvÄstivÄdins originating from Mathura, the KaÅmÄ«ri VaibhÄá¹£ikas, the Western Masters of Gandhara and Bactria (the DÄrá¹£á¹Äntika-SautrÄntika Masters) who were also referred to as Bahirdesaka, AparÄntaka and PÄÅcÄttya, and the MÅ«lasarvÄstivÄdins. As the various groups influenced one another, even these sub-schools do very often not form homogeneous groups.Cox, Dessein & Willemen, 1998, p. 19.VaibhÄá¹£ika
{{Buddhist Philosophy sidebar}}The VaibhÄá¹£ika was formed by adherents of the MahÄvibhÄá¹£a ÅÄstra (MVÅ) during the council of Kashmir. Since then, it comprised the orthodox or mainstream branch of the SarvÄstivÄda school based in KÄÅmÄ«ra (though not exclusive to this region). The VaibhÄÅika-SarvÄstivÄda, which had by far the most “comprehensive edifice of doctrinal systematics” of the early Buddhist schools,“one does not find anywhere else a body of doctrine as organized or as complete as theirs” . . .“Indeed, no other competing schools have ever come close to building up such a comprehensive edifice of doctrinal systematics as the VaibhÄÅika.” The Sautrantika theory of seeds (bija ) revisited: With special reference to the ideological continuity between Vasubandhu’s theory of seeds and its Srilata/Darstantika precedents by Park, Changhwan, PhD thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 2007 pg 2 was widely influential in India and beyond.A Study of the Abhidharmahá¹daya: The Historical Development of the Concept of Karma in the SarvÄstivÄda Thought. PhD thesis by Wataru S. Ryose. University of Wisconsin-Madison: 1987 pg 3As noted by KL Dhammajoti, “It is important to realize that not all of them necessarily subscribed to each and every view sanctioned by the MVÅ compilers. Moreover, the evolving nature of the VaibhÄá¹£ika views must be recognized as well.“Dhammajoti (2009), p. 76.The VaibhÄÅika-SarvÄstivÄdins are sometimes referred to in the MVÅ as “the Äbhidharmikas”, “the SarvÄstivÄda theoreticians” and “the masters of KÄÅmÄ«ra.“Dhammajoti (2009), p. 73. In various texts, they also referred to their tradition as YuktavÄda (the doctrine of logic), as well as HetuvÄda (the doctrine of causes).Dhammajoti (2009), pp. 56, 164.The VaibhÄá¹£ika school saw itself as the orthodox SarvÄstivÄda tradition, and they were united in their doctrinal defense of the theory of “all exists” (sarvÄm asti). This is the doctrine which held that dharmas, past present and future, all exist. This doctrine has been described as an eternalist theory of time.Kalupahana, David. A history of Buddhist philosophy, continuities and discontinuities, page 128.While the VaibhÄá¹£ikas held that dharmas of the three times all exist, they held that only present dharmas have “efficacy” (karitra), thus they were able to explain how the present seems to function differently than the past or future.Westerhoff, 2018, p. 63. Among the different SarvÄstivÄda thinkers, there were different ideas on how this theory was to be understood.Poussin; Pruden, Abhidharmakosabhasyam of Vasubandhu, Vol 3, 1991, p. 808. These differences were accepted as long as they did not contradict the doctrine of “all exists” and can be seen in the MVÅ, which outlines the four different interpretations of this doctrine by the ‘four great Äbhidharmikas of the SarvÄstivÄda’: DharmatrÄta, Buddhadeva, Vasumitra and Ghoá¹£aka.Dhammajoti (2009), p. 75.The doctrines of SarvÄstivÄda were not confined to ‘all exists’, but also include the theory of momentariness (ksanika), conjoining (samprayukta) and causal simultaneity (sahabhu), conditionality (hetu and pratyaya), a unique presentation of the spiritual path (marga), and others. These doctrines are all inter-connected and it is the principle of ‘all exists’ that is the axial doctrine holding the larger movement together when the precise details of other doctrines are at stake.In order to explain how it is possible for a dharma to remain the same and yet also undergo change as it moves through the three times, the VaibhÄá¹£ika held that dharmas have a constant essence (svabhÄva) which persists through the three times.Westerhoff, 2018, p. 70. The term was also identified as a unique mark or own characteristic (svalaksana) that differentiated a dharma and remained unchangeable throughout its existence. According to VaibhÄá¹£ikas, svabhavas are those things that exist substantially (dravyasat) as opposed to those things which are made up of aggregations of dharmas and thus only have a nominal existence (prajñaptisat).DÄrá¹£á¹Äntika and SautrÄntika
The SautrÄntika (“those who uphold the sÅ«tras“), also known as DÄrá¹£á¹Äntika (who may or may not have been a separate but related group), did not uphold the MahÄvibhÄá¹£a ÅÄstra but rather emphasized the Buddhist sÅ«tras as being authoritative.Westerhoff, Jan, The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 73.Already by the time of the MVÅ, the early DÄrá¹£á¹Äntika monks such as DharmatrÄta and Buddhadeva, existed as a school of thought within the fold of the SarvÄstivÄda who disagreed with the orthodox views.Dhammajoti (2009), p. 74. These groups were also called “the western masters” (pÄÅcÄtya) or “the foreign masters” (bahirdeÅaka; also called ‘the masters outside KaÅmÄ«ra’, and the ‘GÄndhÄrian masters’). They studied the same Abhidharma texts as the other SarvÄstivÄdins, but in a more critical way. According to K. L. Dhammajoti, they eventually came to repudiate the SarvÄstivÄda doctrine that “all exists”.Dhammajoti (2009), p. 77.It is this group, i.e. those who rejected the most important SarvÄstivÄda doctrine (along with numerous other key VaibhÄá¹£ika views), which came to be called the SautrÄntika (“those who rely on the sÅ«tras“).Willemen, Charles; Dessein, Bart; Cox, Collett (1998). SarvÄstivÄda Buddhist Scholasticism, p. 109. Handbuch der Orientalistik. Zweite Abteilung. Indien. However, the SautrÄntikas did not reject the Abhidharma method; in fact, they were the authors of several Abhidharma manuals, such as the Abhidharmahá¹daya. The later Buddhist tradition of pramÄá¹a, founded by the Buddhist monks DignÄga and DharmakÄ«rti, is also associated with the SautrÄntika school.File:Seshin_Vasubandhu_Kofukuji.jpg|thumb|Vasubandhu: wood, 186 cm height, about 1208, Kofukuji Temple, Nara, JapanJapanThe most important SautrÄntika was Vasubandhu (ca. 350â430), a native from Purusapura in Gandhara. He is famous for being the author of the AbhidharmakoÅa (4â5th century CE), a very influential Abhidharma work, with an auto-commentary that defends the SautrÄntika views. He famously later converted to the YogÄcÄra school of MahÄyÄna Buddhism, a tradition that itself developed out of the SarvÄstivÄda Abhidharma.Vasubandhu’s KoÅa led to a vigorous reaction from his contemporary, the brilliant VaibhÄá¹£ika master Saá¹ghabhadra, who is said to have spent 12 years composing the NyÄyÄnusÄra, a commentary to Vasubandhu’s verses to refute his views and those of other SautrÄntika monks, such as Sthavira ÅrÄ«lÄta and his pupil RÄma.Dhammajoti (2009), p. 110. The KoÅa was so influential that it became the Abhidharma text par excellence in both Indo-Tibetan Buddhism and East Asian Buddhism, and remains the primary source for Abhidharma studies.Gethin, Rupert (1998). The Foundations of Buddhism, pp. 55 â 56. Oxford University Press.MÅ«lasarvÄstivÄdins
There is much uncertainty as to the relationship of the MÅ«lasarvÄstivÄda (meaning root or original SarvÄstivÄda) school and the others. They were certainly influential in spreading their MÅ«lasarvÄstivÄda Vinaya, as it remains the monastic rule used in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism today. Also, they seem to have been influential in Indonesia by the 7th century, as noted by Yijing.Coedes, George. The Indianized States of South-East Asia. 1968. p. 84A number of theories have been posited by academics as to how the two are related including:BOOK, Sujato, Bhikkhu,santifm.org/santipada/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Sects__Sectarianism_Bhikkhu_Sujato.pdf, Sects & Sectarianism: The origins of Buddhist Schools, Santipada, 2012, 135, Bhikkhu Sujato,- Frauwallner holds that MÅ«lasarvÄstivÄda was the community of Mathura, which was an independent group from the SarvÄstivÄdins of KaÅmir. According to Bhikkhu Sujato, this theory has “stood the test of time”.
- Lamotte thought that the MÅ«lasarvÄstivÄda Vinaya was a late compilation from KaÅmÄ«r.
- Warder suggests that the MÅ«lasarvÄstivÄdins was a late group who compiled a Vinaya and the Saddharmasmá¹tyupasthÄna SÅ«tra.
- Enomoto holds that the SarvÄstivÄdin and MÅ«lasarvÄstivÄdin were the same.
- Willemen, Dessein, and Cox hold that this group is really the SautrÄntika school who renamed themselves in the later years of the SarvÄstivÄda school history.
Texts
Vinaya
The Dharmaguptaka are known to have rejected the authority of the SarvÄstivÄda pratimoká¹£a rules on the grounds that the original teachings of the Buddha had been lost.Baruah, Bibhuti. Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism. 2008. p. 52The complete SarvÄstivÄda Vinaya is extant in the Chinese Buddhist canon. In its early history, the SarvÄstivÄda Vinaya was the most common vinaya tradition in China. However, Chinese Buddhism later settled on the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya. In the 7th century, Yijing wrote that in eastern China, most people followed the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, while the MahÄsÄá¹ghika Vinaya was used in earlier times in Guanzhong (the region around Chang’an), and that the SarvÄstivÄda Vinaya was prominent in the Yangzi River area and further south.Mohr, Thea. Tsedroen, Jampa. Dignity and Discipline: Reviving Full Ordination for Buddhist Nuns. 2010. p. 187 In the 7th century, the existence of multiple Vinaya lineages throughout China was criticized by prominent Vinaya masters such as Yijing and Dao’an (654–717). In the early 8th century, Daoan gained the support of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang, and an imperial edict was issued that the saá¹gha in China should use only the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya for ordination.Heirman, Ann. Bumbacher, Stephan Peter. The Spread of Buddhism. 2007. pp. 194-195Ägamas
Scholars at present have “a nearly complete collection of sÅ«tras from the SarvÄstivÄda school“WEB, Sujato, Bhikkhu, Bhante Sujato,santipada.googlepages.com/whatthebuddhareallytaught, The Pali NikÄyas and Chinese Ägamas, What the Buddha Really Taught, September 8, 2019, thanks to a recent discovery in Afghanistan of roughly two-thirds of the DÄ«rgha Ägama in Sanskrit. The Madhyama Ägama (T26, Chinese trans. Gotama Saá¹ ghadeva) and Saá¹yukta Ägama (T99, Chinese trans. Guá¹abhadra) have long been available in Chinese translation. The SarvÄstivÄda is therefore the only early school besides the Theravada for which we have a roughly complete sutra collection, although unlike the Theravada it has not all been preserved in the original language.Abhidharma
During the first century, the SarvÄstivÄda abhidharma primarily consisted of the Abhidharmahrdaya authored by Dharmashresthin, a native from Tokharistan, and the Ashtagrantha authored/compiled by Katyayaniputra. Both texts were translated by Samghadeva in 391 AD and in 183 AD. respectively, but they were not completed until 390 in Southern China.The SarvÄstivÄda Abhidharma consists of seven texts:- JñÄnaprasthÄna (“Foundation of Knowledge“) (T. 1543â1544)
- Prakaraá¹apÄda (“Exposition“) (T. 1541â1542)
- VijñÄnakÄya (“Body of Consciousness“) (T. 1539)
- Dharmaskandha (“Aggregation of Dharmas“) (T. 1537)
- PrajñaptiÅÄstra (“Treatise on Designations“) (T. 1538)
- DhÄtukÄya (“Body of Elements“) (T. 1540)
- Saá¹ gÄ«tiparyÄya (“Discourses on Gathering Together“) (T. 1536)
- MahÄvibhÄá¹£Ä (“Great Commentary” on the JñÄnaprasthÄna) (T. 1545)
Later Abhidharma manuals
Various other Abhidharma works were written by SarvÄstivÄda masters, some are more concise manuals of abhidharma, others critiqued the orthodox VaibhÄá¹£ika views or provided a defense of the orthodoxy. Dhammajoti provides the following list of such later abhidharma works that are extant in Chinese: 108 109- AbhidharmÄmá¹ta(-rasa)-ÅÄstra (T no. 1553), by Ghoá¹£aka, 2 fasc., translator unknown. 2.
- Abhidharmahá¹daya (T no. 1550) by DharmaÅrÄ«, 4 fasc., tr. by Saá¹ ghadeva et al. 3.
- Abhidharmahá¹daya-sÅ«tra (? T no. 1551) by UpaÅÄnta, 2 fasc., tr. by NarendrayaÅas.
- Abhidharmahá¹dayavyÄkhyÄ (? T no. 1552), by DharmatrÄta, 11 fasc., tr. by SanghabhÅ«ti.
- AbhidharmakoÅa-mÅ«la-kÄrikÄ (T no. 1560) by Vasubandhu, 1 fasc., tr. by Xuan Zang. 6.
- AbhidharmakoÅabhÄá¹£yam (T no. 1558) by Vasubandhu, 1 fasc., tr. by Xuan Zang; (there is also an earlier translation by ParamÄrtha: T no. 1559).
- AbhidharmakoÅaÅÄstra-tattvÄrthÄ-á¹Ä«kÄ (T no. 1561) by Sthiramati, 2 fasc., translator unknown.
- Abhidharma-nyÄyÄnusÄra (T no. 1562) by Saá¹ghabhadra, 40 fasc., tr. by Xuan Zang.
- Abhidharma-samayapradÄ«pikÄ (T no. 1563) by Saá¹ghabhadra, 40 fasc., tr. by Xuan Zang.
- AbhidharmÄvatÄra (T no. 1554) by Skandhila, 2 fasc., tr. by Xuan Zang.
Appearance and language
Appearance
Between 148 and 170 CE, the Parthian monk An Shigao came to China and translated a work which described the color of monastic robes (Skt. kÄá¹£Äya) utilized in five major Indian Buddhist sects, called Da Biqiu Sanqian Weiyi (大æ¯ä¸ä¸åå¨å).Hino, Shoun. Three Mountains and Seven Rivers. 2004. p. 55 Another text translated at a later date, the ÅÄriputraparipá¹cchÄ, contains a very similar passage with nearly the same information. In the earlier source, the SarvÄstivÄda are described as wearing dark red robes, while the Dharmaguptas are described as wearing black robes.Hino, Shoun. Three Mountains and Seven Rivers. 2004. pp. 55-56 However, in the corresponding passage found in the later ÅÄriputraparipá¹cchÄ, the SarvÄstivÄda are described as wearing black robes and the Dharmaguptas as wearing dark red robes. In traditions of Tibetan Buddhism, which follow the MÅ«lasarvÄstivÄda Vinaya, red robes are regarded as characteristic of their tradition.Mohr, Thea. Tsedroen, Jampa. Dignity and Discipline: Reviving Full Ordination for Buddhist Nuns. 2010. p. 266Language
During the first century BCE, in the Gandharan cultural area (consisting of Oddiyana, Gandhara and Bactria, Tokharistan, across the Khyber Pass), the Sthaviriyas used the GÄndhÄrÄ« language to write their literature using the Kharosthi.The Tibetan historian Buton Rinchen Drub wrote that the MahÄsÄá¹ghikas used PrÄkrit, the SarvÄstivÄdins used Sanskrit, the Sthavira nikÄya used PaiÅÄcÄ«, and the Saá¹mitÄ«ya used Apabhraá¹Åa.{{sfn|Yao|2012|p=9}}Influence
The SarvÄstivÄdins of KÄÅmÄ«ra held the {{IAST|MahÄvibhÄá¹£Ä ÅÄstra}} as authoritative, and thus were given the moniker of being VaibhÄá¹£ikas. The {{IAST|MahÄvibhÄá¹£Ä}} is thought to have been authored around 150 CE, around the time of Kaniá¹£ka (127â151) of the Kushan Empire.Potter, Karl. Abhidharma Buddhism to 150 A.D. 1998. p. 112 This massive treatise of Abhidharma (200 fascicles in Chinese) contains a great deal of material with what appear to be strong affinities to MahÄyÄna doctrines.Potter, Karl. Abhidharma Buddhism to 150 A.D. 1998. p. 117 The {{IAST|MahÄvibhÄá¹£Ä}} is also said to illustrate the accommodations reached between the HÄ«nayÄna and MahÄyÄna traditions, as well as the means by which MahÄyÄna doctrines would become accepted.Potter, Karl. Abhidharma Buddhism to 150 A.D. 1998. p. 111 The {{IAST|MahÄvibhÄá¹£Ä}} also defines the MahÄyÄna sÅ«tras and the role in their Buddhist canon. Here they are described as Vaipulya doctrines, with “Vaipulya” being a commonly used synonym for MahÄyÄna. The {{IAST|MahÄvibhÄá¹£Ä}} reads:{{blockquote|What is the Vaipulya? It is said to be all the sÅ«tras corresponding to elaborations on the meanings of the exceedingly profound dharmas.Walser, Joseph. NÄgÄrjuna in Context: MahÄyÄna Buddhism and Early Indian Culture. 2005. p. 156}}According to a number of scholars, MahÄyÄna Buddhism flourished during the time of the Kuá¹£Äá¹a Empire, and this is illustrated in the form of MahÄyÄna influence on the MahÄvibhÄá¹£Ä ÅÄstra.Willemen, Charles. Dessein, Bart. Cox, Collett. SarvÄstivÄda Buddhist Scholasticism. 1997. p. 123 The MañjuÅrÄ«mÅ«lakalpa also records that Kaniá¹£ka presided over the establishment of PrajñÄpÄramitÄ doctrines in the northwest of India.Ray, Reginald. Buddhist Saints in India: A Study in Buddhist Values and Orientations. 1999. p. 410 Ãtienne Lamotte has also pointed out that a SarvÄstivÄda master is known to have stated that the MahÄyÄna PrajÃ±Ä sÅ«tras were to be found amongst their Vaipulya sÅ«tras. According to Paul Williams, the similarly massive Da zhidu lun also has a clear association with the VaibhÄá¹£ika SarvÄstivÄdins.Williams, Paul, and Tribe, Anthony. Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition. 2000. p. 100The VaibhÄá¹£ika and SautrÄntika subschools are both classified in the Tibetan tenets system as the two tenets of the Hinayana, ignoring other early Indian Buddhist schools, which were not known to the Tibetans.SarvÄstivÄdin meditation teachers also worked on the dhyÄna sutras ({{zh|c=禪ç¶}}), a group of early Buddhist meditation texts which were translated into Chinese and became influential in the development of Chinese Buddhist meditation methods.References
{{Reflist}}Sources
- Cox, Collett; Dessein, Bart; Willemen, Charles (1998). SarvÄstivÄda Buddhist Scholasticism. BRILL, Handbuch Der Orientalistik. Leiden, New York, Koln. ISBN 9004102310.
- BOOK, Dhammajoti, K.L., SarvÄstivÄda Abhidharma,books.google.com/books?id=eK4PSQAACAAJ&q=Sarv%C4%81stiv%C4%81da+Abhidharma, 2009, Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, 978-988-99296-5-7,
- BOOK, Kalupahana, David, David Kalupahana, Buddhist Thought and Ritual,books.google.com/books?id=x_FJcRDXhfQC, 2001, Motilal Banarsidass, 978-81-208-1773-9,
- BOOK, Kalupahana, David, David Kalupahana, Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism,books.google.com/books?id=GOYGAAAAYAAJ, 1975, University Press of Hawaii, 978-0-8248-0298-1,
- BOOK, Nakamura, Hajime, Hajime Nakamura, Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes,books.google.com/books?id=w0A7y4TCeVQC, 1980, Motilal Banarsidass, 978-81-208-0272-8,
- BOOK, Vasubandhu, Vasubandhu, de La Vallée-Poussin, Louis, Louis de La Vallée-Poussin, AbhidharmakoÅabhÄá¹£yam,books.google.com/books?id=FWpiNAEACAAJ, 1 June 1990, Asian Humanities Press, 978-0-89581-913-0,
- BOOK, Xing, Guang, The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the TrikÄya Theory,books.google.com/books?id=DTWZLMGFFgkC, 2005, Psychology Press, 978-0-415-33344-3,
- BOOK, Yao, Zhihua, The Buddhist Theory of Self-Cognition,books.google.com/books?id=_uYR4sSsoSIC, 2012, Routledge, 978-1-134-28745-1,
Further reading
- For a critical examination of the SarvÄstivÄdin interpretation of the Samyuktagama, see David Kalupahana, Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism.
- For a Sautrantika refutation of the SarvÄstivÄdin use of the Samyuktagama, see Theodore Stcherbatsky, The Central Conception of Buddhism and the Meaning of the Word Dharma.. Theodore Stcherbatsky, The Central Conception of Buddhism and the Meaning of the Word Dharma. Asian Educational Services, 2003, page 76. This is a reprint of a much earlier work and the analysis is now quite dated; the first appendix however contains translations of polemical materials.
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