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Proto-Indo-European language
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{{Short description|Ancestor of the Indo-European languages}}{{redirect2|PIE|Proto-Indo-European|the people|Proto-Indo-Europeans|other uses|PIE (disambiguation)}}{{Distinguish|Pre-Indo-European languages|Paleo-European languages}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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Development of the hypothesis
No direct evidence of PIE exists; scholars have reconstructed PIE from its present-day descendants using the comparative method.WEB,weblink Linguistics – The comparative method, Science, Encyclopedia Britannica, 27 July 2016, For example, compare the pairs of words in Italian and English: and foot, and father, and fish. Since there is a consistent correspondence of the initial consonants (p and f) that emerges far too frequently to be coincidental, one can infer that these languages stem from a common parent language.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Comparative linguistics,weblink Encyclopædia Britannica, 27 August 2016, Detailed analysis suggests a system of sound laws to describe the phonetic and phonological changes from the hypothetical ancestral words to the modern ones. These laws have become so detailed and reliable as to support the Neogrammarian rule: the Indo-European sound laws apply without exception.William Jones, an Anglo-Welsh philologist and puisne judge in Bengal, caused an academic sensation when in 1786 he postulated the common ancestry of Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, the Celtic languages, and Old Persian,ENCYCLOPEDIA,weblink Sir William Jones, British orientalist and jurist, Encyclopædia Britannica, 3 September 2016, but he was not the first to state such a hypothesis. In the 16th century, European visitors to the Indian subcontinent became aware of similarities between Indo-Iranian languages and European languages,BOOK, Sylvain, Auroux, History of the Language Sciences, 1156, 3-11-016735-2, Walter de Gruyter, 2000,weblink and as early as 1653, Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn had published a proposal for a proto-language ("Scythian") for the following language families: Germanic, Romance, Greek, Baltic, Slavic, Celtic, and Iranian.BOOK, Roger Blench, Roger, Blench,weblink Archaeology and language: Methods and issues, A Companion to Archaeology, Bintliff, J., 52–74, Oxford, UK, Basil Blackwell, 2004, In a memoir sent to the in 1767, , a French Jesuit who spent all his life in India, had specifically demonstrated the analogy between Sanskrit and European languages.WEB, Kip, Wheeler, The Sanskrit Connection: Keeping Up With the Joneses,weblink Carson–Newman University, 16 April 2013, According to current academic consensus, Jones's famous work of 1786 was less accurate than his predecessors', as he erroneously included Egyptian, Japanese and Chinese in the Indo-European languages, while omitting Hindi.In 1818, Rasmus Christian Rask elaborated the set of correspondences in his prize essay ('Investigation of the Origin of the Old Norse or Icelandic Language'), where he argued that Old Norse was related to the Germanic languages, and had even suggested a relation to the Baltic, Slavic, Greek, Latin and Romance languages.BOOK, Momma, Haruko,weblink From Philology to English Studies: Language and Culture in the Nineteenth Century, 2013, Cambridge University Press, 978-0-521-51886-4, 65–66, en, Haruko Momma, In 1816, Franz Bopp published On the System of Conjugation in Sanskrit, in which he investigated the common origin of Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, and German. In 1833, he began publishing the Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slavic, Gothic, and German.ENCYCLOPEDIA,weblink Franz Bopp, German philologist, Encyclopædia Britannica, 26 August 2016, In 1822, Jacob Grimm formulated what became known as Grimm's law as a general rule in his . Grimm showed correlations between the Germanic and other Indo-European languages and demonstrated that sound change systematically transforms all words of a language.ENCYCLOPEDIA,weblink Grimm's law, linguistics, Encyclopædia Britannica, 26 August 2016, From the 1870s, the Neogrammarians proposed that sound laws have no exceptions, as illustrated by Verner's law, published in 1876, which resolved apparent exceptions to Grimm's law by exploring the role of accent (stress) in language change.ENCYCLOPEDIA,weblink Neogrammarian, German scholar, Encyclopædia Britannica, 26 August 2016, August Schleicher's A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin Languages (1874–77) represented an early attempt to reconstruct the proto-Indo-European language.ENCYCLOPEDIA,weblink August Schleicher, German linguist, Encyclopædia Britannica, 26 August 2016, By the early 1900s, Indo-Europeanists had developed well-defined descriptions of PIE which scholars still accept today. Later, the discovery of the Anatolian and Tocharian languages added to the corpus of descendant languages. A subtle new principle won wide acceptance: the laryngeal theory, which explained irregularities in the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European phonology as the effects of hypothetical sounds which no longer exist in all languages documented prior to the excavation of cuneiform tablets in Anatolian. This theory was first proposed by Ferdinand de Saussure in 1879 on the basis of internal reconstruction only,BOOK, Saussure, Ferdinand de,weblink Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes, 1879, Leipsick : B. G. Teubner, University of California Libraries, and progressively won general acceptance after Jerzy Kuryłowicz's discovery of consonantal reflexes of these reconstructed sounds in Hittite.Kuryłowicz, Jerzy (1927). "ə indo-européen et ḫ hittite". In: Witold Taszycki and Witold Doroszewki (eds.), Symbolae Grammaticae in honorem Ioannis Rozwadowski, v. 1, 95–104. Krakow: Uniwersytet Jagielloński.Julius Pokorny's ('Indo-European Etymological Dictionary', 1959) gave a detailed, though conservative, overview of the lexical knowledge accumulated by 1959. Jerzy Kuryłowicz's 1956 Apophonie gave a better understanding of Indo-European ablaut. From the 1960s, knowledge of Anatolian became robust enough to establish its relationship to PIE.Historical and geographical setting
File:Indo-European migrations.jpg|thumb|300px|Early Indo-European migrations from the Pontic steppesPontic steppes{{anchor|Era}}{{anchor|Region}}Scholars have proposed multiple hypotheses about when, where, and by whom PIE was spoken. The Kurgan hypothesis, first put forward in 1956 by Marija Gimbutas, has become the most popular.{{efn|See:- Bomhard: "This scenario is supported not only by linguistic evidence, but also by a growing body of archeological and genetic evidence. The Indo-Europeans have been identified with several cultural complexes existing in that area between 4,500—3,500 BCE. The literature supporting such a homeland is both extensive and persuasive [...]. Consequently, other scenarios regarding the possible Indo-European homeland, such as Anatolia, have now been mostly abandoned."{{sfn|Bomhard|2019|p=2}}
- Anthony & Ringe: "Archaeological evidence and linguistic evidence converge in support of an origin of Indo-European languages on the Pontic-Caspian steppes around 4,000 years BCE. The evidence is so strong that arguments in support of other hypotheses should be reexamined."{{sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|pp=199–219}}
- Mallory: "The Kurgan solution is attractive and has been accepted by many archaeologists and linguists, in part or total. It is the solution one encounters in the Encyclopædia Britannica and the Grand Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Larousse."{{sfn|Mallory|1989|p=185}}
- Strazny: "The single most popular proposal is the Pontic steppes (see the Kurgan hypothesis)..."{{sfn|Strazny|2000|p=163}}}} It proposes that the original speakers of PIE were the Yamnaya culture associated with the kurgans (burial mounds) on the Pontic–Caspian steppe north of the Black Sea.BOOK, The horse, the wheel, and language: how bronze-age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world, 2007, Princeton University Press, 978-0-691-05887-0, 8th reprint, Princeton, N.J., Anthony, David W., David W. Anthony, The Horse, the Wheel, and Language, {{rp|305–7}}JOURNAL,weblink Mysterious Indo-European homeland may have been in the steppes of Ukraine and Russia, Balter, Michael, 13 February 2015, Science, 10.1126/science.aaa7858, 17 February 2015, According to the theory, they were nomadic pastoralists who domesticated the horse, which allowed them to migrate across Europe and Asia in wagons and chariots. By the early 3rd millennium BCE, they had expanded throughout the Pontic–Caspian steppe and into eastern Europe.JOURNAL, Gimbutas, Marija, 1985, Primary and Secondary Homeland of the Indo-Europeans: comments on Gamkrelidze-Ivanov articles, Journal of Indo-European Studies, 13, 1–2, 185–202,
Descendants
The table lists the main Indo-European language families, comprising the languages descended from Proto-Indo-European.{| class="wikitable"!Clade!Proto-language!Description!Historical languages!Modern descendantsMarginally attested languages
The Lusitanian language was a marginally attested language spoken in areas near the border between present-day Portugal and Spain.The Venetic and Liburnian languages known from the North Adriatic region are sometimes classified as Italic.Albanian and Greek are the only surviving Indo-European descendants of a Paleo-Balkan language area, named for their occurrence in or in the vicinity of the Balkan peninsula. Most of the other languages of this area—including Illyrian, Thracian, and Dacian—do not appear to be members of any other subfamilies of PIE, but are so poorly attested that proper classification of them is not possible. Forming an exception, Phrygian is sufficiently well-attested to allow proposals of a particularly close affiliation with Greek, and a Graeco-Phrygian branch of Indo-European is becoming increasingly accepted.BOOK, Brixhe, Claude, 2008, Phrygian, Woodard, Roger D., The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor, Cambridge University Press, 72, 9781139469333,weblink BOOK, Ligorio, Orsat, Lubotsky, Alexander, 101. Phrygian, 2018, Jared Klein, Brian Joseph, Matthias Fritz, Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics, Berlin, Boston, De Gruyter Mouton, 1816–1831, HSK 41.3, 10.1515/9783110542431-022, 1887/63481, 9783110542431, 242082908,weblink JOURNAL, Obrador-Cursach, Bartomeu, 2019, On the place of Phrygian among the Indo-European languages, Journal of Language Relationship, 17, 3–4, 239, 10.31826/jlr-2019-173-407, 215769896, free,Phonology
Proto-Indo-European phonology has been reconstructed in some detail. Notable features of the most widely accepted (but not uncontroversial) reconstruction include:- three series of stop consonants reconstructed as voiceless, voiced, and breathy voiced;
- sonorant consonants that could be used syllabically;
- three so-called laryngeal consonants, whose exact pronunciation is not well-established but which are believed to have existed in part based on their detectable effects on adjacent sounds;
- the fricative {{IPA|/s/}}
- a vowel system in which {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} were the most frequently occurring vowels. The existence of {{IPA|/a/}} as a separate phoneme is debated.
Notation
Vowels
The vowels in commonly used notation are:{{sfnp|Kapović|2017|p=13}}{| class="wikitable"|+!Type!length!front!backConsonants
The corresponding consonants in commonly used notation are:{{sfnp|Fortson|2010|loc=§3.2}}{{sfnp|Beekes|loc=§11}}{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"Accent
The Proto-Indo-European accent is reconstructed today as having had variable lexical stress, which could appear on any syllable and whose position often varied among different members of a paradigm (e.g. between singular and plural of a verbal paradigm). Stressed syllables received a higher pitch; therefore it is often said that PIE had a pitch accent. The location of the stress is associated with ablaut variations, especially between full-grade vowels ({{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/o/}}) and zero-grade (i.e. lack of a vowel), but not entirely predictable from it.The accent is best preserved in Vedic Sanskrit and (in the case of nouns) Ancient Greek, and indirectly attested in a number of phenomena in other IE languages, such as Verner's Law in the Germanic branch. Sources for Indo-European accentuation are also the Balto-Slavic accentual system and plene spelling in Hittite cuneiform. To account for mismatches between the accent of Vedic Sanskrit and Ancient Greek, as well as a few other phenomena, a few historical linguists prefer to reconstruct PIE as a tone language where each morpheme had an inherent tone;{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}} the sequence of tones in a word then evolved, according to that hypothesis, into the placement of lexical stress in different ways in different IE branches.{{Citation needed|date=January 2017}}Morphology
Root
Proto-Indo-European roots were affix-lacking morphemes that carried the core lexical meaning of a word and were used to derive related words (cf. the English root "-friend-", from which are derived related words such as friendship, friendly, befriend, and newly coined words such as unfriend). Proto-Indo-European was probably a fusional language, in which inflectional morphemes signaled the grammatical relationships between words. This dependence on inflectional morphemes means that roots in PIE, unlike those in English, were rarely used without affixes. A root plus a suffix formed a word stem, and a word stem plus a desinence (usually an ending) formed a word.{{sfnp|Fortson|2010|loc=§4.2, §4.20}}Ablaut
Many morphemes in Proto-Indo-European had short e as their inherent vowel; the Indo-European ablaut is the change of this short e to short o, long e (Ä“), long o (Å), or no vowel. The forms are referred to as the "ablaut grades" of the morpheme—the e-grade, o-grade, zero-grade (no vowel), etc. This variation in vowels occurred both within inflectional morphology (e.g., different grammatical forms of a noun or verb may have different vowels) and derivational morphology (e.g., a verb and an associated abstract verbal noun may have different vowels).{{sfnp|Fortson|2010|pp=73–74}}Categories that PIE distinguished through ablaut were often also identifiable by contrasting endings, but the loss of these endings in some later Indo-European languages has led them to use ablaut alone to identify grammatical categories, as in the Modern English words sing, sang, sung.Noun
Proto-Indo-European nouns were probably declined for eight or nine cases:{{sfnp|Fortson|2010|p=102}}- nominative: marks the subject of a verb. Words that follow a linking verb (copulative verb) and restate the subject of that verb also use the nominative case. The nominative is the dictionary form of the noun.
- accusative: used for the direct object of a transitive verb.
- genitive: marks a noun as modifying another noun.
- dative: used to indicate the indirect object of a transitive verb, such as Jacob in Maria gave Jacob a drink.
- instrumental: marks the instrument or means by, or with, which the subject achieves or accomplishes an action. It may be either a physical object or an abstract concept.
- ablative: used to express motion away from something.
- locative: expresses location, corresponding vaguely to the English prepositions in, on, at, and by.
- vocative: used for a word that identifies an addressee. A vocative expression is one of direct address where the identity of the party spoken to is set forth expressly within a sentence. For example, in the sentence, "I don't know, John", John is a vocative expression that indicates the party being addressed.
- allative: used as a type of locative case that expresses movement towards something. It was preserved in Anatolian (particularly Old Hittite), and fossilized traces of it have been found in Greek. It is also present in Tocharian.{{Citation |last=Pinault |first=Georges-Jean |title=Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics |chapter=76. The morphology of Tocharian |date=2017-10-23 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110523874-031/html |pages=1335–1352 |access-date=2023-03-08 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783110523874-031 |isbn=978-3-11-052387-4}} Its PIE shape is uncertain, with candidates including -h2(e), -(e)h2, or -a.{{sfnp|Fortson|2010|pp=102, 105}}
- masculine
- feminine
- neuter
- singular
- dual
- plural
Pronoun
Proto-Indo-European pronouns are difficult to reconstruct, owing to their variety in later languages. PIE had personal pronouns in the first and second grammatical person, but not the third person, where demonstrative pronouns were used instead. The personal pronouns had their own unique forms and endings, and some had two distinct stems; this is most obvious in the first person singular where the two stems are still preserved in English I and me. There were also two varieties for the accusative, genitive and dative cases, a stressed and an enclitic form.BOOK, Beekes, Robert, Comparative Indo-European linguistics: an introduction, 1995, J. Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 978-1556195044, 147, 212–217, 233, 243, {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"|+ Personal pronouns! rowspan="2" | Case! colspan="2" | First person! colspan="2" | Second personVerb
Proto-Indo-European verbs, like the nouns, exhibited a system of ablaut.The most basic categorisation for the reconstructed Indo-European verb is grammatical aspect. Verbs are classed as:- stative: verbs that depict a state of being
- imperfective: verbs depicting ongoing, habitual or repeated action
- perfective: verbs depicting a completed action or actions viewed as an entire process.
- indicative: indicates that something is a statement of fact; in other words, to express what the speaker considers to be a known state of affairs, as in declarative sentences.
- imperative: forms commands or requests, including the giving of prohibition or permission, or any other kind of advice or exhortation.
- subjunctive: used to express various states of unreality such as wish, emotion, possibility, judgment, opinion, obligation, or action that has not yet occurred
- optative: indicates a wish or hope. It is similar to the cohortative mood and is closely related to the subjunctive mood.
- active: used in a clause whose subject expresses the main verb's agent.
- mediopassive: for the middle voice and the passive voice.
- singular
- dual: referring to precisely two of the entities (objects or persons) identified by the noun or pronoun.
- plural: a number other than singular or dual.
Numbers
Proto-Indo-European numerals are generally reconstructed as follows:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"!Number!SihlerParticle
Proto-Indo-European particles were probably used both as adverbs and as postpositions. These postpositions became prepositions in most daughter languages.Reconstructed particles include for example, *{{PIE|upo}} "under, below"; the negators *{{PIE|ne}}, *{{PIE|mē}}; the conjunctions *{{PIE|kʷe}} "and", *{{PIE|wē}} "or" and others; and an interjection, *{{PIE|wai!}}, expressing woe or agony.Derivational morphology
Proto-Indo-European employed various means of deriving words from other words, or directly from verb roots.Internal derivation
Internal derivation was a process that derived new words through changes in accent and ablaut alone. It was not as productive as external (affixing) derivation, but is firmly established by the evidence of various later languages.Possessive adjectives
Possessive or associated adjectives were probably created from nouns through internal derivation. Such words could be used directly as adjectives, or they could be turned back into a noun without any change in morphology, indicating someone or something characterised by the adjective. They were probably also used as the second elements in compounds. If the first element was a noun, this created an adjective that resembled a present participle in meaning, e.g. "having much rice" or "cutting trees". When turned back into nouns, such compounds were Bahuvrihis or semantically resembled agent nouns.In thematic stems, creating a possessive adjective seems to have involved shifting the accent one syllable to the right, for example:BOOK, Jay Jasanoff, The Prehistory of the Balto-Slavic Accent, 21, Jay Jasanoff,- tómhâ‚-o-s "slice" (Greek tómos) > tomhâ‚-ó-s "cutting" (i.e. "making slices"; Greek tomós) > dr-u-tomhâ‚-ó-s "cutting trees" (Greek drutómos "woodcutter" with irregular accent).
- wólhâ‚-o-s "wish" (Sanskrit vára-) > wolhâ‚-ó-s "having wishes" (Sanskrit vará- "suitor").
acrostatic → proterokinetic → hysterokinetic → amphikinetic
The reason for this particular ordering of the classes in derivation is not known. Some examples: - Acrostatic krót-u-s ~ krét-u-s "strength" (Sanskrit krátu-) > proterokinetic krét-u-s ~ kr̥t-éw-s "having strength, strong" (Greek kratús).
- Hysterokinetic phâ‚‚-tḗr ~ phâ‚‚-tr-és "father" (Greek patḗr) > amphikinetic hâ‚su-péhâ‚‚-tÅr ~ hâ‚su-phâ‚‚-tr-és "having a good father" (Greek εὑπάτωÏ, eupátÅr).
Vrddhi
A vrddhi derivation, named after the Sanskrit grammatical term, signifying "of, belonging to, descended from". It was characterised by "upgrading" the root grade, from zero to full (e) or from full to lengthened (Ä“). When upgrading from zero to full grade, the vowel could sometimes be inserted in the "wrong" place, creating a different stem from the original full grade.Examples:{{sfnp|Fortson|2010|pp=116f}}- full grade swéḱuro-s "father-in-law" (Vedic Sanskrit {{IAST2|Å›váśura-}}) > lengthened grade swēḱuró-s "relating to one's father-in-law" (Vedic {{IAST2|Å›vÄÅ›ura-}}, Old High German swÄgur "brother-in-law").
- full grade dyḗw-s > zero grade diw-és "sky" > new full grade deyw-o-s "god, sky god" (Vedic {{IAST2|devás}}, Latin deus, etc.). Note the difference in vowel placement, dyew- in the full-grade stem of the original noun, but {{not a typo|deyw-}} in the vrddhi derivative.
Nominalization
Adjectives with accent on the thematic vowel could be turned into nouns by moving the accent back onto the root. A zero grade root could remain so, or be "upgraded" to full grade like in a vrddhi derivative. Some examples:BOOK, Jay Jasanoff, The Prehistory of the Balto-Slavic Accent, 22, Jay Jasanoff,- PIE ǵnÌ¥hâ‚-tó-s "born" (Vedic jÄtá-) > ǵénhâ‚-to- "thing that is born" (German Kind).
- Greek leukós "white" > leũkos "a kind of fish", literally "white one".
- Vedic kṛṣṇá- "dark" > ká¹›Ìṣṇa- "dark one", also "antelope".
Affixal derivation
{{empty section|date=May 2019}}Syntax
The syntax of the older Indo-European languages has been studied in earnest since at least the late nineteenth century, by such scholars as Hermann Hirt and Berthold Delbrück. In the second half of the twentieth century, interest in the topic increased and led to reconstructions of Proto-Indo-European syntax.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Preface, Proto-Indo-European Syntax and its Development, Leonid, Kulikov, Nikolaos, Lavidas, John Benjamins, 2015, Since all the early attested IE languages were inflectional, PIE is thought to have relied primarily on morphological markers, rather than word order, to signal syntactic relationships within sentences.{{r|eiec}} Still, a default (unmarked) word order is thought to have existed in PIE. In 1892, Jacob Wackernagel reconstructed PIE's word order as subject–verb–object (SVO), based on evidence in Vedic Sanskrit.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Proto-Indo-European verb-finality: Reconstruction, typology, validation, Hans Henrich, Hock, Hans Henrich Hock, Proto-Indo-European Syntax and its Development, Leonid, Kulikov, Nikolaos, Lavidas, John Benjamins, 2015, Winfred P. Lehmann (1974), on the other hand, reconstructs PIE as a subject–object–verb (SOV) language. He posits that the presence of person marking in PIE verbs motivated a shift from OV to VO order in later dialects. Many of the descendant languages have VO order: modern Greek, Romance and Albanian prefer SVO, Insular Celtic has VSO as the default order, and even the Anatolian languages show some signs of this word order shift. Tocharian and Indo-Iranian, meanwhile, retained the conservative OV order. Lehmann attributes the context-dependent order preferences in Baltic, Slavic and Germanic to outside influences.BOOK,weblink Proto-Indo-European Syntax, Lehmann, Winfred P., University of Texas Press, 1974, Syntactic Developments from PIE to the Dialects, 9780292733411, Winfred P. Lehmann, Donald Ringe (2006), however, attributes these to internal developments instead.BOOK, Ringe, Donald, 2006, Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic, Oxford University Press, Paul Friedrich (1975) disagrees with Lehmann's analysis. He reconstructs PIE with the following syntax:- basic SVO word order
- adjectives before nouns
- head nouns before genitives
- prepositions rather than postpositions
- no dominant order in comparative constructions
- main clauses before relative clauses
See also
- Indo-European vocabulary
- Proto-Indo-European verbs
- Proto-Indo-European pronouns
- List of Indo-European languages
- Indo-European sound laws
- List of proto-languages
Notes
{{notelist}}References
{{Reflist}}Bibliography
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- {{Citation |title=Volume 1 Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics |date=2017-09-25 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110261288/html |access-date=2023-11-19 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783110261288 |isbn=978-3-11-026128-8 |editor-last1=Klein |editor-last2=Joseph |editor-last3=Fritz |editor-first1=Jared |editor-first2=Brian |editor-first3=Matthias }}
- {{Citation |title=Volume 2 Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics: An International Handbook |date=2017-10-23 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110523874/html |work=Volume 2 Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics |access-date=2023-11-19 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783110523874 |isbn=978-3-11-052387-4 |editor-last1=Klein |editor-last2=Joseph |editor-last3=Fritz |editor-first1=Jared |editor-first2=Brian |editor-first3=Matthias }}
- {{Citation |title=Volume 3 Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics |date=2018-06-11 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110542431/html |access-date=2023-11-19 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783110542431 |isbn=978-3-11-054243-1 |editor-last1=Klein |editor-last2=Joseph |editor-last3=Fritz |editor-first1=Jared |editor-first2=Brian |editor-first3=Matthias }}
External links
{{Wiktionary|Appendix:Proto-Indo-European Swadesh list}}- At the University of Texas Linguistic Research Center: List of online books {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728215921weblink |date=28 July 2017 }}, Indo-European Lexicon
- Proto-Indo-European Lexicon at the University of Helsinki, Department of Modern Languages, Department of World Cultures, Indo-European Studies
- WEB,weblink Wheel and chariot in early IE: What exactly can we conclude from the linguistic data?, Martin Joachim Kümmel, department of Indo-European linguistics, University of Jena,
- Indo-European Grammar, Syntax & Etymology Dictionary
- Indo-European Lexical Cognacy Database {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151107054612weblink |date=7 November 2015 }}
- glottothèque – Ancient Indo-European Grammars online, an online collection of video lectures on Ancient Indo-European languages
- content above as imported from Wikipedia
- "Proto-Indo-European language" does not exist on GetWiki (yet)
- time: 3:57pm EDT - Wed, May 15 2024
- "Proto-Indo-European language" does not exist on GetWiki (yet)
- time: 3:57pm EDT - Wed, May 15 2024
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