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Dilmun
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History
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=450|caption_align=center| align = right| direction =horizontal| header=Dilmun on the relief of Ur-Nanshe | image1 = Relief Ur-Nanshe Louvre AO2344.jpgKingdom of Dilmun
File:Coper head of bull Dilmun1.jpg|thumb|250px|Bull's head, made of copper in the early period of Dilmun (ca. 2000 BC), discovered by Danish archeologists under Barbar Temple, BahrainBahrainFrom about 2050 BC onward, Dilmun seems to have had its heyday. Qal'at al-Bahrain was most likely the capital of Dilmun. From texts found at Isin, it becomes clear that Dilmun became an independent kingdom, free from Mesopotamian rule; royal gifts to Dilmun are mentioned. Contacts with the Amorite state of Mari, in the northern Levant, are attested. At about this time, the largest royal burial mounds were erected.Steffen Terp Laursen (2017)Ë The Royal Mounds of A'ali in Bahrain, Aarhus, {{ISBN|978-87-93423-16-9}}, pp. 381 From about 1780 BC came several inscriptions on stone vessels naming two kings of Dilmun, King Yagli-El and his father, Rimum. The inscriptions were found in huge tumuli, evidently the burial places of these kings. Rimum was already known to archaeology from the Durand Stone, discovered in 1879.Steffen Terp Laursen: Kings of Dilmun identified by name; weblink Kings of Dilmun identified by name and announced in a press conference held by BACAFrom about 1720 BC, a decline is visible. Many settlements were no longer used, and the building of royal mounds ceased. The Barbar Temple fell into ruins.Steffen Terp Laursen (2017)Ë The Royal Mounds of A'ali in Bahrain, Aarhus, {{ISBN|978-87-93423-16-9}}, pp. 388â390 From about 1650 BC, a ârecoveringâ period is detectable. New royal burial mounds were built; at Qal'at al-Bahrain, there is evidence for increased building activity. To this period belongs a further inscription, on a seal, found at Failaka and preserving a king's name. The short text reads, [La]'ù-la Panipa, daughter of Sumu-lÄl, the servant of Inzak of Akarum. Sumu-lÄl was evidently a third king of Dilmun from around this period. Servant of Inzak of Akarum was the king's title in Dilmun. The names of these later rulers are Amoritic.Gianni MarchesiË Inscriptions from the Royal Mounds of A'alo (Bahrain) and related Texts, inË Steffen Terp LaursenË The Royal Mounds of A'ali in Bahrain, Aarhus 2017, {{ISBN|978-87-93423-16-9}}, pp. 428â430Dilmun under foreign rule
File:BE XVII 88.jpg|thumb|250px|Correspondence between IlÄ«-ippaÅ¡ra, the governor of Dilmun, and Enlil-kidinni, the governor of NippurNippurIt seems that, at least from 1500 BC, Dilmun was under the rule of the Akkadian-speaking Mesopotamian Sealand Dynasty. The Sealand-Dynasty King Ea-gamil is mentioned in a text found at Qal'at al-Bahrain. Ea-gamil was the last ruler of the Sealand Dynasty. After his reign, Dilmun came under the rule of the Babylonian Kassite dynasty, as they also took over the Sealand Dynasty area.Steffen Terp Laursen (2017)Ë The Royal Mounds of A'ali in Bahrain, Aarhus, {{ISBN|978-87-93423-16-9}}, pp. 390Dilmun was mentioned in two letters dated to the reign of Burna-Buriash II (c. 1370 BC), recovered from Nippur during the Kassite dynasty of Babylon. These letters were from a provincial official named IlÄ«-ippaÅ¡ra, in Dilmun, to his friend, Enlil-kidinni, the governor of Nippur. The names referred to are Akkadian. These letters, and other documents, hint at an administrative relationship between Dilmun and Babylon at that time. Following the collapse of the Kassite dynasty, in 1595 BC, Mesopotamian documents make no mention of Dilmun until Assyrian inscriptions (dated from 1250 BC to 1050 BC) proclaimed Assyrian kings to be rulers of Dilmun and Meluhha, as well as Lower Sea and Upper Sea. Assyrian inscriptions recorded tribute from Dilmun.There are other Assyrian inscriptions during the first millennium BC, indicating Assyrian sovereignty over Dilmun.BOOK, Life and land use on the Bahrain Islands: The geoarcheology of an ancient society, Larson, Curtis E., 1983, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 978-0-226-46905-8, 50â51,weblink One of the early sites discovered in Bahrain suggests that Sennacherib, King of Assyria (707â681 BC), attacked northeast Arabia and captured the Bahraini islands.BOOK, Security and Territoriality in the Persian Gulf: A Maritime Political Geography, Mojtahed-Zadeh, Pirouz, 1999, Curzon, Richmond, Surrey, 978-0-7007-1098-0, The most recent reference to Dilmun came during the Neo-Babylonian Empire; Neo-Babylonian administrative records, dated 567 BC, stated that Dilmun was controlled by the King of Babylon. The name of Dilmun fell from use after the collapse of Babylon, in 538 BC, with the area henceforth identified as Tylos during the Hellenistic period.The "Persian Gulf" types of circular, stamped (rather than rolled) seals known from Dilmunâthat appear at Lothal, Gujarat, India, and Failaka (as well as in Mesopotamia)âare convincing corroboration of the long-distance sea trade. What the commerce consisted of is less known; timber and precious woods, ivory, lapis lazuli, gold, and luxury goods (such as carnelian and glazed stone beads), pearls from the Persian Gulf, shell and bone inlays were among the goods sent to Mesopotamia, in-exchange for silver, tin, woolen textiles, olive oil and grains.Copper ingots from Oman and bitumen (which occurred naturally in Mesopotamia) may have been exchanged for cotton textiles and domestic fowl, major products of the Indus region that are not native to Mesopotamia. Instances of all of these trade goods have been found. The importance of this trade is shown by the fact that the weights and measures used at Dilmun were¡ in fact, identical to those used by the Indus, and were not those used in Southern Mesopotamia.In regards to copper mining and smelting, the Umm al-Nar culture and Dalma (United Arab Emirates) and Ibri (Oman) were particularly important.WEB, {{Google books, yes, fC6DAgAAQBAJ, 229, |title=Egypt's Making: The Origins of Ancient Egypt 5000â2000 BC|work=Michael Rice|year=1991|page=229}}Some Meluhhan vessels may have sailed directly to Mesopotamian ports but, by the Isin-Larsa Period, Dilmun monopolized the trade. The Bahrain National Museum assesses that its "Golden Age" lasted ca. 2200â1600 BC. Discoveries of ruins under the Persian Gulf may be of Dilmun.WEB,weblink Lost ancient civilisation's ruins lie beneath Gulf, says boffin, Lewis, Page, www.theregister.com,People, language and religion
The population used cuneiform to write in the Akkadian language,BOOK,weblink Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture, William H. Stiebing Jr, 217, 2016, 9781315511153, and, like the Akkadians, Assyrians, Babylonians and Eblaites of Mesopotamia, spoke an East Semitic language that was either an Akkadian dialect or one close to it, rather than a Central Semitic language, and its known rulers had East Semitic names.BOOK,weblink The Indian Ocean In Antiquity, Julian Reade, Jean Jacques Glassner, Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha, 242, 9781136155314, 2013-10-28, BOOK, Serge Cleuziou, G. Afanas'ev, S. Cleuziou, R. Lukacs, M. Tosi, The prehistory of Asia and Oceania, ForlÃ: Colloquia of the XIII International congress of prehistoric and protohistoric sciences, 16, The emergence of oasis towns in eastern and southern Arabia,weblink 1996, ABACO Edizioni, Forlì, 978-88-86-71206-4, 157, Dilmun's main deity was named Inzak and his spouse was Panipa.BOOK,weblink The Indian Ocean In Antiquity, Julian Reade, Jean Jacques Glassner, Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha, 239, 9781136155314, 2013-10-28, However there are no indication of population replacement happening in the region.JOURNAL, 2019, KAPA Stranded mRNA-Seq Kitï¼KK8420ï¼: de novo RNA-seq (stranded mRNA-Seq) from total RNA derived from invertebratesï¼stranded mRNA-Seqï¼, Bio-Protocol, 9, 17, 10.21769/bioprotoc.1010557, 239256795, 2331-8325, free,Mythology
(File:Dilmun stamp seal with hunters and goats, rectangular pen, ca early 2nd millennium BC.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Dilmun stamp seal with hunters and goats, rectangular pen, ca early 2nd millennium BC)In the early epic Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, the main events, which center on Enmerkar's construction of the ziggurats in Uruk and Eridu, are described as taking place at a time "before Dilmun had yet been settled".Dilmun, sometimes described as "the place where the sun rises" and "the Land of the Living", is the scene of some versions of the Eridu Genesis, and the place where the deified Sumerian hero of the flood, Utnapishtim (Ziusudra), was taken by the gods to live forever. Thorkild Jacobsen's translation of the Eridu Genesis calls it "Mount Dilmun" which he locates as a "faraway, half-mythical place".BOOK, Thorkild Jacobsen, The Harps that once: Sumerian poetry in translation, 150, {{Google books, yes, L-BI0h41yCEC, |access-date=2 July 2011|date=23 September 1997|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-07278-5}}Dilmun is also described in the epic story of Enki and Ninhursag as the site at which the Creation occurred.BOOK, Kramer, Samuel Noah, The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character,weblink registration, 1963, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, 978-0-226-45238-8, 145â150, The later Babylonian Enuma Elish, speaks of the creation site as the place where the mixture of salt water, personified as Tiamat met and mingled with the fresh water of Abzu. Bahrain in Arabic means "the twin waters", where the fresh water of the Arabian aquifer mingles with the salt waters of the Persian Gulf. The promise of Enki to Ninhursag, the Earth Mother:For Dilmun, the land of my lady's heart, I will create long waterways, rivers and canals, whereby water will flow to quench the thirst of all beings and bring abundance to all that lives.Ninlil, the Sumerian goddess of air and south wind had her home in Dilmun.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}However, it is also speculated that Gilgamesh had to pass through Mount Mashu to reach Dilmun in the Epic of Gilgamesh, which is usually identified with the whole of the parallel Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges, with the narrow gap between these mountains constituting the tunnel.BOOK, P. T. H. Unwin, Tim Unwin, Wine and the Vine: An Historical Geography of Viticulture and the Wine Trade, {{Google books, yes, U6XRp6gY8ucC, 80, |access-date=31 May 2011|date=18 June 1996|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-14416-2|pages=80â}}Location of Dilmun
File:Dilmun period (3200-320 BC) burial chambers at Saar, Bahrain.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Ruins of a settlement, believed to be from the Dilmun civilization, in Sar, BahrainSar, Bahrain(File:AncientTombsOfBahrain.svg|thumb|300px|Location of burial mounds in Bahrain)In 1987, Theresa Howard-Carter proposed that Dilmun of this era might be a still unidentified tell near the Arvand Rud (Shatt al-Arab in Arabic) between modern-day Quanah and Basra in modern-day Iraq.JOURNAL, Theresa, Howard-Carter, Dilmun: At Sea or Not at Sea? A Review Article, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, 39, 1, 1987, 54â117, 1359986, 10.2307/1359986, 163963264, In favor of Howard-Carter's proposal, it has been noted that this area does lie to the east of Sumer ("where the sun rises"), and the riverbank where Dilmun's maidens would have been accosted aligns with the Shat al-Arab which is in the midst of marshes. The "mouth of the rivers" where Dilmun was said to lie is for her the union of the Tigris and Euphrates at Qurnah. A number of scholars have suggested that Dilmun originally designated the eastern province of modern Saudi Arabia, notably linked with the major Dilmunite settlements of Umm an-Nussi and Umm ar-Ramadh in the interior and Tarout on the coast.Roads of Arabia p.180As of 2022, archaeologists have failed to find a site in existence during the time from 3300 BC (Uruk IV) to 556 BC (Neo-Babylonian Era), when Dilmun appears in texts. According to Hojlund, no settlements exist in the Gulf littoral dating to 3300â2000 BC.Garden of Eden theory
In 1922, Eduard Glaser proposed that the Garden of Eden was located in Eastern Arabia within the Dilmun civilization.JOURNAL, W. F. Albright, October 1922, The Location of the Garden of Eden, 528684, The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, 39, 1, 15â31, 10.1086/369964, 170465632, Scholar Juris Zarins also believes that the Garden of Eden was situated in Dilmun at the head of the Persian Gulf (present-day Kuwait), where the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers run into the sea, from his research on this area using information from many different sources, including Landsat images from space. In this theory, the Bible's Gihon would correspond with the Karun in Iran, and the Pishon River would correspond to the Wadi al-Batin river system that once drained the now dry, but once quite fertile central part of the Arabian Peninsula.JOURNAL, Hamblin, Dora Jane, May 1987, Has the Garden of Eden been located at last?,weblink Smithsonian Magazine, 18, 2, 8 January 2014, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20140109135715weblink">weblink 9 January 2014,Known rulers
Only a few rulers of the Dilmun kingdom are known:Legrain, 1922; Cameron, 1936; The Cambridge History of Iran; Hinz, 1972; The Cambridge Ancient History; Majidzadeh, 1991; Majidzadeh, 1997.- Ziusudra (27th century BC)
- Rimun (c. 1780 BC)
- Yagli-El, son of Rimun
- Sumu-lÄl (c. 1650 BC)
- Usiananuri, grandfather of Uballissu-Marduk (precise dates unknown)
- Ilī-ippašra (contemporary with Burnaburiash II and Kurigalzu II)
- Operi (c. 710 BC)
- Hundaru I (c. 650 BC)
- Qena (c. 680âc. 670 BC)
- Hundaru II (706â685 BC)
See also
- Bahrain National Museum
- DHL International Aviation ME, a cargo airline using "Dilmun" as radio call sign
- Dilmun Burial Mounds
- Gerrha
- Gilgamesh
- History of Bahrain
- History of Kuwait
- IndusâMesopotamia relations
- Kuwait National Museum
- Uruk
References
{{Reflist|30em}}External links
- weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20060206105038weblink">Indus ValleyâMesopotamian trade passing through Dilmun
- Lost ancient civilisation's ruins lie beneath Gulf, says boffin
- weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20090602001118weblink">Bahrain National Museum's hall of Dilmun
- Dilmun Site Al-Khidr, Failaka Island, State of Kuwait
- Greek inscriptions found on Bahrein (a pdf-file)
- weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20071004225228weblink">Dilmun Calendar Theory Backed, Gulf Daily News, 11 July 2006
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