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phrenology
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{{short description|Pseudoscientific study of human characteristics according to shape of the skull}}{{distinguish|Phenology}}{{for|the music album by the Roots|Phrenology (album)}}(File:Phrenological skull, European, 19th century CE. On display at the Wellcome Collection, London.jpg|thumb|Phrenological skull, European, 19th century. Wellcome Collection, London){{alternative medicine sidebar}}Phrenology or Craniology ({{ety|grc|ÏÏήν (phrÄn)|mind||λÏÎ³Î¿Ï (logos)|knowledge}}) is a pseudoscience that involves the measurement of bumps on the skull to predict mental traits.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Wihe, J. V., 2002, Science and Pseudoscience: A Primer in Critical Thinking, Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience, 195â203, California, Skeptics Society, BOOK, Hines, T., 2002, Pseudoscience and the Paranormal, New York, Prometheus Books, 200, It is based on the concept that the brain is the organ of the mind, and that certain brain areas have localized, specific functions or modules.BOOK, Fodor, Jerry A., 1983, Modularity of Mind: An Essay on Faculty Psychology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 0-262-56025-9, 14, 23, 131, It was said that the brain was composed of different muscles, so those that were used more often were bigger, resulting in the different skull shapes. This led to the reasoning behind why everyone had bumps on the skull in different locations. The brain "muscles" not being used as frequently remained small and were therefore not present on the exterior of the skull. Although both of those ideas have a basis in reality, phrenology generalizes beyond empirical knowledge in a way that departs from science.BOOK, Bunge, M., 2018, From a Scientific Point of View: Reasoning and Evidence Beat Improvisation across Fields, Cambridge, Cambridge Scholar Publishing, 74, The central phrenological notion that measuring the contour of the skull can predict personality traits is discredited by empirical research.JOURNAL, Parker Jones, O., Alfaro-Almagro, F., Jbabdi, S., 2018, An empirical, 21st century evaluation of phrenology, Cortex, 106, 26â35, 10.1016/j.cortex.2018.04.011, 29864593, 6143440, free, Developed by German physician Franz Joseph Gall in 1796,Graham, Patrick. (2001) Phrenology [videorecording (DVD)]: revealing the mysteries of the mind. Richmond Hill, Ont.: American Home Treasures. {{ISBN|0-7792-5135-0}} the discipline was influential in the 19th century, especially from about 1810 until 1840. The principal British centre for phrenology was Edinburgh, where the Edinburgh Phrenological Society was established in 1820.Phrenology is today recognized as pseudoscience.{{harvp|Bunge|1985|p=54}}; {{harvp|Stiles|2012|p=11}}; {{harvp|Cooter|1990|p=156}}; {{harvp|Christison-Lagay|Cohen|2013|pp=337â354}} The methodological rigor of phrenology was doubtful even for the standards of its time, since many authors already regarded phrenology as pseudoscience in the 19th century.{{harvp|Flourens|1844|p=150}}; {{harvp|Anonymous|1860|pp=249â260}}; {{harvp|Winn|1879|pp=18â29}}; {{harvp|Robinson Storer|1866|p=134}} There have been various studies conducted that discredited phrenology, most of which were done with ablation techniques. Marie-Jean-Pierre Flourens demonstrated through ablation that the cerebrum and cerebellum accomplish different functions. He found that the impacted areas never carried out the functions that were proposed through the pseudoscience, phrenology. However, Paul Broca disproved the idea that phrenology was a science when he discovered and named the "Broca's area". The patient's ability to produce language was lost while their ability to understand language remained intact. Through an autopsy examining their brains, he found that there was damage to the left frontal lobe. He concluded that this area of the brain was responsible for language production. Between Flourens and Broca, the claims to support phrenology were dismantled. Phrenological thinking was influential in the psychiatry and psychology of the 19th century. Gall's assumption that character, thoughts, and emotions are located in specific areas of the brain is considered an important historical advance toward neuropsychology.Fodor, JA. (1983) The Modularity of Mind. MIT Press. pp. 14, 23, 131Simpson, D. (2005) "Phrenology and the Neurosciences: Contributions of F. J. Gall and J. G. Spurzheim" ANZ Journal of Surgery. Oxford. Vol. 75.6; p. 475 He contributed to the idea that the brain is spatially organized, but not in the way he proposed. There is a clear division of labor in the brain but none of which even remotely correlates to the size of the head or the structure of the skull. While it contributed to some advancements in understanding the brain and its functions, skepticism of phrenology developed over time.(File:The_Phrenologist.jpg|thumb|The Phrenologist, a sketch by A.S. Hartrick, 1895)While phrenology itself has long been discredited, the study of the inner surface of the skulls of archaic human species allows modern researchers to obtain information about the development of various areas of the brains of those species, and thereby infer something about their cognitive and communicative abilities,JOURNAL, Beaudet, Amélie, The Emergence of Language in the Hominin Lineage: Perspectives from Fossil Endocasts, Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11, 427, 2017, 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00427, 28878641, 5572361, free, and possibly even something about their social life. Due to its limitations, this technique is sometimes criticized as "paleo-phrenology".JOURNAL,weblink National Geographic, From Neanderthal Skull to Neanderthal Brain?, Virginia, Hughes, 2013-03-13, 2021-03-30, 2021-06-03,weblink dead, - the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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Mental faculties
Phrenologists believe that the human mind has a set of various mental faculties, each one represented in a different area of the brain. For example, the faculty of "philoprogenitiveness", from the Greek for "love of offspring", was located centrally at the back of the head (see illustration of the chart from Webster's Academic Dictionary).These areas were said to be proportional to a person's propensities. The importance of an organ was derived from relative size compared to other organs. It was believed that the cranial skullâlike a glove on the handâaccommodates to the different sizes of these areas of the brain, so that a person's capacity for a given personality trait could be determined simply by measuring the area of the skull that overlies the corresponding area of the brain.Phrenology, which focuses on personality and character, is distinct from craniometry, which is the study of skull size, weight and shape, and physiognomy, the study of facial features.Method
Phrenology is a process that involves observing and/or feeling the skull to determine an individual's psychological attributes. Franz Joseph Gall believed that the brain was made up of 27 individual organs that determined personality, the first 19 of these "organs" he believed to exist in other animal species. Phrenologists would run their fingertips and palms over the skulls of their patients to feel for enlargements or indentations.{{sfn|Parssinen|1974|p=2}} The phrenologist would often take measurements with a tape measure of the overall head size and more rarely employ a craniometer, a special version of a caliper. In general, instruments to measure sizes of cranium continued to be used after the mainstream phrenology had ended. The phrenologists put emphasis on using drawings of individuals with particular traits, to determine the character of the person and thus many phrenology books show pictures of subjects. From absolute and relative sizes of the skull the phrenologist would assess the character and temperament of the patient.Gall's list of the "brain organs" was specific. An enlarged organ meant that the patient used that particular "organ" extensively. The numberâand more detailed meaningsâof organs were added later by other phrenologists. The 27 areas varied in function, from sense of color, to religiosity, to being combative or destructive. Each of the 27 "brain organs" was located under a specific area of the skull. As a phrenologist felt the skull, he would use his knowledge of the shapes of heads and organ positions to determine the overall natural strengths and weaknesses of an individual. Phrenologists believed the head revealed natural tendencies but not absolute limitations or strengths of character. The first phrenological chart gave the names of the organs described by Gall; it was a single sheet, and sold for a cent. Later charts were more expansive.BOOK, Samuel Roberts, Wells,weblink How to Read Character: A New Illustrated Hand-Book of Phrenology and Physiognomy, for Students and Examiners; with A Descriptive Chart, New York, Fowler & Wells Co., 1885, iii,History
(File:1895-Dictionary-Phrenolog.png|thumb|left|A definition of phrenology with chart from Webster's Academic Dictionary, {{Circa|1895}})Among the first to identify the brain as the major controlling center for the body were Hippocrates and his followers, inaugurating a major change in thinking from Egyptian, biblical and early Greek views, which based bodily primacy of control on the heart.BOOK, Finger, Stanley, Minds Behind the Brain: A History of the Pioneers and Their Discoveries, 2004, Oxford University Press, New York, 978-0195181821, 29,weblink registration, aristotle brain., This belief was supported by the Greek physician Galen, who concluded that mental activity occurred in the brain rather than the heart, contending that the brain, a cold, moist organ formed of sperm, was the seat of the animal soulâone of three "souls" found in the body, each associated with a principal organ.WEB, A History of the Brain,weblink A History of the Body, Stanford University, Early Science Lab, 13 September 2013, 23 October 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20131023175224weblink">weblink live, The Swiss pastor Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741â1801) introduced the idea that physiognomy related to the specific character traits of individuals, rather than general types, in his Physiognomische Fragmente, published between 1775 and 1778.BOOK, J. Arianne, Baggerman, Rudolf M., Dekker, Michael James, Mascuch, Controlling Time and Shaping the Self: Developments in Autobiographical Writing Since the Sixteenth Century,weblink 2011, Brill Publishers, Brill, 978-90-04-19500-4, 250â, Google Books, His work was translated into English and published in 1832 as The Pocket Lavater, or, The Science of Physiognomy.BOOK,weblink The pocket Lavater, or, The science of physiognomy : to which is added, An inquiry into the analogy existing between brute and human physiognomy, from the Italian of Porta, Lavater, Johann Caspar, 1832, He believed that thoughts of the mind and passions of the soul were connected with an individual's external frame.Of the forehead, When the forehead is perfectly perpendicular, from the hair to the eyebrows, it denotes an utter deficiency of understanding. (p. 24)In 1796 the German physician Franz Joseph Gall (1758â1828) began lecturing on organology: the isolation of mental faculties{{sfn|Staum|2003|p=49}} and later cranioscopy which involved reading the skull's shape as it pertained to the individual. It was Gall's collaborator Johann Gaspar Spurzheim who would popularize the term "phrenology".{{sfn|Staum|2003|p=49}}{{sfn|Lyons|2009|p=56}}In 1809 Gall began writing his principal1833, The American Journal of the Medical Sciences, Southern Society for Clinical Investigation work, The Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System in General, and of the Brain in Particular, with Observations upon the possibility of ascertaining the several Intellectual and Moral Dispositions of Man and Animal, by the configuration of their Heads. It was not published until 1819. In the introduction to this main work, Gall makes the following statement in regard to his doctrinal principles, which comprise the intellectual basis of phrenology:{{sfn|Lyons|2009|p=53}}{hide}blockquote|- The Brain is the organ of the mind
- The brain is not a homogenous unity, but an aggregate of mental organs with specific functions
- The cerebral organs are topographically localized
- Other things being equal, the relative size of any particular mental organ is indicative of the power or strength of that organ
- Since the skull ossifies over the brain during infant development, external craniological means could be used to diagnose the internal states of the mental characters{edih}
Application
(File:Phrenology journal (1848).jpg|thumb|1848 edition of American Phrenological Journal published by Fowlers & Wells, New York)Racism
Some scientists believed phrenology affirmed European superiority over other races. By comparing skulls of different ethnic groups it was thought to allow for ranking of races from least to most evolved. Broussais, a disciple of Gall, proclaimed that the Caucasians were the most beautiful, while peoples like the Australian Aboriginal and MÄori would never become civilized since "they had no cerebral organ for producing great artists".{{sfn|Staum|2003|p=59}} Few phrenologists argued for the emancipation of the slaves, while many used it to advocate for slavery.JOURNAL, Branson, Susan, 2017, Phrenology and the Science of Race in Antebellum America,weblink Early American Studies, 15, 1, 164â193, 90000339, 1543-4273, 2022-07-12, 2022-07-12,weblink live, Instead they argued that through education and interbreeding the "lesser peoples" could improve.{{sfn|Staum|2003|p=62}} Another argument was that the natural inequality of people could be used to situate them in the most appropriate place in society.Gender stereotyping
Gender stereotyping was also common with phrenology. Women whose heads were generally larger in the back with lower foreheads were thought to have underdeveloped organs necessary for success in the arts and sciences while having larger mental organs relating to the care of children and religion.{{sfn|Staum|2003|p=64}} While phrenologists did not contest the existence of talented women, this minority did not provide justification for citizenship or participation in politics.{{sfn|Staum|2003|p=65}}Education
One of the considered practical applications of phrenology was education. Due to the nature of phrenology people were naturally considered unequal, as very few people would have a naturally perfect balance between organs. Thus education would play an important role in creating a balance through rigorous exercise of beneficial organs while repressing baser ones. One of the best examples of this is Félix Voisin, who, for approximately ten years, ran a reform school in Issy for the express purpose of correction of the mind of children who had suffered some hardship. Voisin focused on four categories of children for his reform school:{{sfn|Staum|2003|p=74}}- Slow learners
- Spoiled, neglected, or harshly treated children
- Willful, disorderly children
- Children at high risk of inheriting mental disorders
Criminology
Phrenology was one of the first{{clarify|date=August 2021}} to bring about the idea of rehabilitation of criminals instead of vindictive punishments that would not stop criminals, only with the reorganizing a disorganized brain would bring about change.{{sfn|Lyons|2009|pp=79â80}} Voisin believed along with others the accuracy of phrenology in diagnosing criminal tendencies. Diagnosis could point to the type of offender, the insane, an idiot or brute, and by knowing this an appropriate course of action could be taken.{{sfn|Staum|2003|p=74}} A strict system of reward and punishment, hard work and religious instruction, was thought to be able to correct those who had been abandoned and neglected with little education and moral ground works. Those who were considered intellectually disabled could be put to work and housed collectively while only criminals of intellect and vicious intent needed to be confined and isolated.{{sfn|Staum|2003|p=77}} Phrenology also advocated variable prison sentences, the idea being that those who were only defective in education and lacking in morals would soon be released while those who were "mentally deficient" could be watched and the truly abhorrent criminals would never be released.{{sfn|Parssinen|1974|p=6}}JOURNAL, Punishing Criminals, Phrenological Journal, March 1871, LII, Num 3, Whole Number 386, 200â204, {{sfn|Lyons|2009|p=80}} For other patients phrenology could help redirect impulses, one homicidal individual became a butcher to control his impulses, while another became a military chaplain so he could witness killings.{{sfn|Staum|2003|p=76}} Phrenology also provided reformist arguments for the lunatic asylums of the Victorian era. John Conolly, a physician interested in psychological aspects of disease, used phrenology on his patients in an attempt to use it as a diagnostic tool. While the success of this approach is debatable, Conolly, through phrenology, introduced a more humane way of dealing with the mentally ill.{{sfn|McGrew|1985|p=261}} The first phrenological testimony in a court of law was solicited by American lawyer John Neal in Portland, Maine, in 1834.BOOK, Thompson, Courtney E., 2021, An Organ of Murder: Crime, Violence, and Phrenology in Nineteenth-Century America, New Brunswick, Camden, and Newark, New Jersey, and London, Rutgers University Press, 55, 191n4, 978-1978813069, Neal argued unsuccessfully that the jury should take leniency on his client because the part of his brain associated with violent behavior was inflamed.MAGAZINE, Holtzman, Geoffrey S., December 16, 2015, When Phrenology Was Used in Court: Lessons in Neuroscience from the 1834 Trial of a 9-year-old,weblink Slate (magazine), Slate, New York, April 4, 2021, May 16, 2021,weblink live,Psychiatry
In psychiatry, phrenology was proposed as a viable model in order to the disciplinary field. The South Italian psychiatrist Biagio Miraglia proposed a new classification of mental illness based on brain functions as they were described by Gall. In Miraglia's view, madness is consequent to dysfunctions of the cerebral organs: "The organs of the brain that may become ill in isolation or in complex get their activities infected through energy, or depression, or inertia or deficiency. So the madness can take the appearance of these three characteristic forms; i.e. for enhanced activity, or for depressed activity, or for inertia or deficiency of brain activities".JOURNAL, Miraglia, Biagio G., 1874, 2014,weblink A new classification of mental illness based on brain functions, Dialogues in Philosophy, Mental and Neuro Sciences, 7, 2, 636â637, 2016-11-11, 2017-01-12,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20170112160354weblink">weblink live,Psychology
In the Victorian era, phrenology as a psychology was taken seriously and permeated the literature and novels of the day. Many prominent public figures. such as the Reverend Henry Ward Beecher (a college classmate and initial partner of Orson Fowler) promoted phrenology actively as a source of psychological insight and self-knowledge.{{sfn|McCandless|1992|p=204}} In Europe and the United States, many people visited phrenologists to have their heads analysed. After such an examination, clients received a written delineation of their character or a standardized chart with their score, combined with advice on how to improve themselves.JOURNAL, Sysling, Fenneke, June 2018, Science and self-assessment: phrenological charts 1840â1940, The British Journal for the History of Science, en, 51, 2, 261â280, 10.1017/S0007087418000055, 29576034, 0007-0874, free, 1887/123052, free, People also consulted phrenologists for advice in matters such as hiring personnel or finding suitable marriage partners.{{sfn|McCandless|1992|p=210}}BOOK,weblink Pseudoscience and the paranormal: a critical examination of the evidence, Hines, Terence, 1988, Prometheus Books, 0879754192, Buffalo, NY, 17462273, registration, As such, phrenology as a brain science waned but developed into the popular psychology of the 19th century.Reception
(File:(King1893NYC) pg330 FOWLER and WELLS CO, AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF PHRENOLOGY, 27 EAST, 21ST STREET.jpg|thumb|American Institute of Phrenology (New York, 1893))Great Britain
Phrenology was introduced at a time when the old theological and philosophical understanding of the mind was being questioned and no longer seemed adequate in a society that was experiencing rapid social and demographic changes.{{sfn|Parssinen|1974|p=14}} Phrenology became one of the most popular movements of the Victorian Era. In part phrenology's success was due to George Combe tailoring phrenology for the middle class. Combe's book On the Constitution of Man and its Relationship to External Objects was one of the most popular of the time, selling over two hundred thousand copies in a ten-year period. Phrenology's success was also partly because it was introduced at a time when scientific lectures were becoming a form of middle-class entertainment, exposing a large demographic of people to phrenological ideas who would not have heard them otherwise.{{sfn|Parssinen|1974|pp=2, 9}} As a result of the changing times, new avenues of exposure and its multifaceted appeal, phrenology flourished in popular culture{{sfn|Parssinen|1974|pp=3â9}} although it was discredited as scientific theory by 1840.France
While still not a fringe movement, there was not popular widespread support of phrenology in France. This was not only due to strong opposition to phrenology by French scholars but also once again accusations of promoting atheism, materialism and radical religious views. Politics in France also played a role in preventing rapid spread of phrenology.{{sfn|Staum|2003|pp=51â52}} In Britain phrenology had provided another tool to be used for situating demographic changes; the difference was there was less fear of revolutionary upheaval in Britain compared with France. Given that most French supporters of phrenology were liberal, left-wing or socialist, it was an objective of the social elite of France, who held a restrained vision of social change, that phrenology remain on the fringes. Another objection was that phrenology seemed to provide a built in excuse for criminal behaviour, since in its original form it was essentially deterministic in nature.{{sfn|Staum|2003|pp=51â52}}Ireland
Phrenology arrived in Ireland in 1815, through Spurzheim.{{sfn|Leaney|2006|p=30}} While Ireland largely mirrored British trends, with scientific lectures and demonstrations becoming a popular pastime of the age, by 1815 phrenology had already been ridiculed in some circles priming the audiences to its skeptical claims.{{sfn|Leaney|2006|p=28}} Because of this the general public valued it more for its comic relief than anything else; however, it did find an audience in the rational dissenters who found it an attractive alternative to explain human motivations without the attached superstitions of religion.{{sfn|Leaney|2006|pp=28, 38}} The supporters of phrenology in Ireland were relegated to scientific subcultures because the Irish scholars neglected marginal movements like phrenology, denying it scientific support in Ireland.{{sfn|Leaney|2006|p=25}} In 1830 George Combe came to Ireland, his self-promotion barely winning out against his lack of medical expertise, still only drawing lukewarm crowds. This was due to not only the Vatican's decree that phrenology was subversive of religion and morality but also that, based on phrenology, the "Irish Catholics were sui generis a flawed and degenerate breed".{{sfn|Leaney|2006|p=35}} Because of the lack of scientific support, along with religious and prejudicial reasons, phrenology never found a wide audience in Ireland.United States
The first publication in the United States in support of phrenology was published by John Bell, who reissued Combe's essays with an introductory discourse, in 1822.BOOK, Combe, George,weblink Lectures on phrenology, with notes by A. Boardman, 1839, en, Google Books, 2020-11-19, 2023-02-05,weblink live, The following year, John G. Wells of Bowdoin College "commenced an annual exposition, and recommendation of its doctrines, to his class". In 1834, John D. Godman, professor of anatomy at Rutgers Medical College, emphatically defended phrenology when he wrote:WEB, The anatomy and physiology of the human body (Volume 1) â Digital Collections â National Library of Medicine,weblink 2020-09-25, collections.nlm.nih.gov, 2021-06-03,weblink live, It is, however, allowable to take as a principle, that there will be a relation betwixt vigour of intellect and perfection of form; and that, therefore, history will direct us to the original and chief family of mankind. We therefore ask, which are the nations that have excelled and figured in history, not only as conquerors, but as forwarding, by their improvements in arts and sciences, the progress of human knowledge?Phrenological teachings had become a widespread popular movement by 1834, when Combe came to lecture in the United States.{{sfn|McCandless|1992|pp=205â208}} Sensing commercial possibilities men like the Fowlers became phrenologists and sought additional ways to bring phrenology to the masses.{{sfn|McCandless|1992|p=208}} Though a popular movement, the intellectual elite of the United States found phrenology attractive because it provided a biological explanation of mental processes based on observation, yet it was not accepted uncritically. Some intellectuals accepted organology while questioning cranioscopy.{{sfn|McCandless|1992|p=206}} Gradually the popular success of phrenology undermined its scientific merits in the United States and elsewhere, along with its materialistic underpinnings, fostering radical religious views. There was increasing evidence to refute phrenological claims, and by the 1840s it had largely lost its credibility.{{sfn|McCandless|1992|p=210}} In the United States, especially in the South, phrenology faced an additional obstacle in the antislavery movement. While phrenologists usually claimed the superiority of the European race, they were often sympathetic to liberal causes including the antislavery movement; this sowed skepticism about phrenology among those who were pro-slavery.{{sfn|McCandless|1992|p=212}} The rise and surge in popularity in mesmerism, phrenomesmerism, also had a hand in the loss of interest in phrenology among intellectuals and the general public.{{sfn|McCandless|1992|p=213}}BOOK, APA handbook of personality and social psychology, Mikulincer, Mario, Shaver, Phillip R., John Dovidio, Dovidio, John F., Simpson, Jeffrey A., American Psychological Association, 978-1433816994, First, Washington, DC, 862928518, 2015, John Brown Junior, son of the abolitionist John Brown, travelled for a time as a lecturer on phrenology.JOURNAL, Rescripting a Troubled Past: John Brown's Family and the Harpers Ferry Conspiracy, Robert E., McGlone, Journal of American History, 75, 4, March 1989, 1179â1200, at p. 1190, 10.2307/1908635, 1908635,Specific phrenological modules
From Combe:{{sfn|Combe|1851|pp=xâxi}}(File:PhrenologyPix.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|An 1883 phrenology chart)(File:Earthenware phrenological bust, areas are marked off with an Wellcome L0057601.jpg|thumb|Phrenological bust)Propensities
Propensities do not form ideas; they solely produce propensities common to animals and man.- Adhesiveness
- Alimentiveness
- Amativeness
- Acquisitiveness
- Causality
- Cautiousness
- Combativeness
- Concentrativeness
- Constructiveness
- Destructiveness
- Ideality
- Love of life
- Philoprogenitiveness
- Secretiveness
Sentiments
Lower sentimentsThese are common to man and animal.- Cautiousness
- Love of approbation
- Self-esteem
- Truthfulness
- Benevolence
- Conscientiousness
- Firmness
- Hope
- Ideality
- Imitation
- Veneration
- Wit or Mirthfulness
- Wonder
Intellectual faculties
These are to know the external world and physical qualities- Coloring
- Eventuality
- Form
- Hearing
- Individuality
- Language
- Locality
- Number
- Order
- Sight
- Size
- Smell
- Taste
- Time
- Touch
- Tune
- Weight
Reflecting faculties
These produce ideas of relation or reflect. They minister to the direction and gratification of all the other powers:- Causality
- Comparison
In popular culture
- Several literary critics have noted the influence of phrenologyJOURNAL, Hungerford, Edward, 1930, Poe and Phrenology, American Literature, 2, 3, 209â231, 10.2307/2920231, 2920231, (and physiognomy) in Edgar Allan Poe's fiction.Erik Grayson. "Weird Science, Weirder Unity: Phrenology and Physiognomy in Edgar Allan Poe" Mode 1 (2005): 56â77. Also online (weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20060506052027weblink">archive).
- The character of Calvin Candie (portrayed by Leonardo DiCaprio) claims to be a practitioner of phrenology in the movie Django Unchained.NEWS,weblink Django Unchained and the racist science of phrenology, The Guardian, Guardian News & Media Limited, James, Poskett, February 5, 2013, May 24, 2019, October 3, 2017,weblink live,
- The character of U.S. Army Major Doctor Augustus Bendix from AMC's western Hell on Wheels is an avid practitioner of phrenology.WEB, HoF, Hell on Wheels Season Three-A bizarro-world version of the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad. » historyonfilm.com, historyonfilm.com, 2014-09-11,weblink 2019-07-23, 2019-07-23,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20190723152911weblink">weblink live,
- Phrenology (2002) by The Roots was named so after group member Black Thought saw an article in a scientific journal and the group "appropriated the term, not only for its political irony ..."JOURNAL, Venable, Malcolm,weblink Mo' Money, Mo' Problems, Vibe (magazine), Vibe, 10, 10, New York, October 2002, May 24, 2019, 124â128, Google Books,
- In Terry Pratchett's Discworld, he introduces the fictional practice of "retro-phrenology", where bumps are added to the head in order to alter the personality.BOOK, Pratchett, Terry, Terry Pratchett, Men At Arms, 1993, 403,
- The TV comedy 30 Rock has referenced phrenology.WEB,weblink NIAGARA DISCOVERIES: Phrenology, a popular 19th century 'science', Lockport Union-Sun & Journal, References to phrenology occasionally pop up even in the 21st century. The theory was discussed in an episode of the TV show 30 Rock., 2016-09-23, 2022-08-15, 2022-08-15,weblink live,
- In a seventh season episode of The Simpsons, the character Mr. Burns refers to "the sloping brow and cranial bumpage of the career criminal." His assistant Waylon Smithers tries to inform him that phrenology was "dismissed as quackery" long ago, but Burns dismisses this because he says that Smithers has "the brainpan of a stagecoach tilter."
- In the episode Society of the Blind Eye from Gravity Falls, the character Blind Ivan has tattoos on his bald head that resemble a phrenological chart.
- Phrenology is mentioned in the film My Girl, in which Vada demonstrates it to Thomas J.
- In the novel The Hound of the Baskervilles, Holmes' client is Dr James Mortimer, who claims to be a practitioner of phrenology.
- The 2023 movie Measures of Men features scenes showing heads and skulls being measured as well as graves being robbed to obtain them
See also
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}- Anthropometry
- Boston Phrenological Society
- Brodmann's areas
- Characterology
- Craniometry
- Edinburgh Phrenological Society
- Faculty psychology
- Graphology
- Localization of brain function
- Metoposcopy
- Mien Shiang
- Moral insanity
- Neuroepistemology
- Neuro-imaging
- Onychomancy
- Palmistry
- Pathognomy
- Phreno-magnetism
- Physiognomy
- Psychograph
- Psychognomy
- Quackery
- Racial policy of Nazi Germany
- Scientific racism
- Scientific skepticism
- (The Zoist|The Zoist: A Journal of Cerebral Physiology & Mesmerism, and Their Applications to Human Welfare)
References
{{Reflist}}Bibliography
- JOURNAL, Anonymous, 1860, Sir William Hamilton on Phrenology, American Journal of Psychiatry, 16, 3, 249â260, 10.1176/ajp.16.3.249,
- BOOK, Bunge, M., 1985, Treatise on Basic Philosophy, 7 (Part 2), Dordrecht, Reidel Publishing Company,
- BOOK, Christison-Lagay, K. L., Cohen, Y. E., 2013, The Neural Representation of Vocalisation Perception, Animal Communication Theory: Information and Influence, New York, State University of New York Press,
- BOOK, Combe, George, A System of Phrenology, 1851, Benjamin B. Mussey and Company, Boston,weblink 2012-06-10, 2023-02-05,weblink live,
- BOOK, Cooter, R., 1990, The Conservatism of 'Pseudoscience', Philosophy of Science and the Occult, New York, State University of New York Press,
- BOOK, Flourens, P., 1844, Elementary Treatise on Human Physiology, New York, Harper & Brothers, 150,
- JOURNAL, Leaney, Enda, Phrenology in Nineteenth-Century Ireland, New Hibernia Review / Iris Ãireannach Nua, 2006, 10, 3, 24â42, 20558078, 10.1353/nhr.2006.0058, 144035028,
- BOOK, Lyons, Sherrie L., Species, Serpents, Spirits, and Skulls: Science at the Margins in the Victorian Age, Victorian Studies, 53, 1, 141â143, 2009, New York Press, Albany, 978-1438427973, 10.2979/victorianstudies.53.1.141, 10.2979/victorianstudies.53.1.141, 141992807,
- JOURNAL, McCandless, Peter, Mesmerism and Phrenology in Antebellum Charleston: 'Enough of the Marvellous', The Journal of Southern History, 1992, 58, 2, 199â230, 2210860, 10.2307/2210860,
- BOOK, McGrew, Roderick E., Encyclopedia of Medical History, 1985, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,weblink registration, 978-0070450875,
- JOURNAL, Parssinen, T. M., Popular Science and Society: The Phrenology Movement in Early Victorian Britain, Journal of Social History, Autumn 1974, 8, 1, 1â20, 3786523, 10.1353/jsh/8.1.1, 11632363,
- JOURNAL, Robinson Storer, H., Report on Insanity in Women, 1866, Transactions of the American Medical Association, 16, 134,
- BOOK, Staum, Martin S., Labeling People: French Scholars on Society, Race and Empire, 1815â1848, 2003, McGill-Queen's University Press, Montreal, 978-0773525801,weblink 2016-01-27, 2023-02-05,weblink live,
- BOOK, Stiles, Anne, 2012, Popular Fiction and Brain Science in the Late Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
- BOOK, Thompson, Courtney E., 2021,weblink An Organ of Murder: Crime, Violence, and Phrenology in Nineteenth-Century America, Rutgers University Press, 2021-06-25, 2021-06-04,weblink live,
- JOURNAL, Winn, J. M., 1879, Mind and Living Particles, Journal of Psychological Medicine and Mental Pathology, 5, 1, 18â29, 28906933, 5122056,
External links
{{Sister project links|auto=yes}}- "Phrenology", North American Review, 1833 p. 59
- (iarchive:manualofphrenolo00philuoft|Manual of Phrenology). Open Content Alliance eBook Collection, Manual of phrenology: being an analytical summary of the system of Doctor Gall, on the faculties of man and the functions of the brain : translated from the 4th French ed
- (iarchive:newillustratedse00fowluoft|New illustrated self-instructor in phrenology and physiology). Open Content Alliance eBook Collection, Fowler, O. S. (Orson Squire) (1809â1887); Fowler, L. N. (Lorenzo Niles) (1811â1896)
- The History of Phrenology on the Web by John van Wyhe, PhD.
- weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20071129010632weblink">Phrenology: an Overview includes The History of Phrenology by John van Wyhe, PhD.
- Examples of phrenological tools can be seen in The Museum of Questionable Medical Devices in Minneapolis, Minnesota
- Historical Anatomies on the Web: Joseph Vimont: Traité de phrénologie humaine et comparée. (Paris, 1832â1835). Selected pages scanned from the original work. US National Library of Medicine.
- Jean-Claude Vimont: Phrénologie à Rouen, les moulages du musée Flaubert d'histoire de la médecine
- Phrenology: History of a Classic Pseudoscience â by Steven Novella MD
- The Skeptic's Dictionary by Robert Todd Carroll
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