14 recent turned up (20 or fewer displayed):
- Charles Sanders Peirce (Bibliography) (redir)
- Pragmatism
: For non-technical usage see Pragmatism (non-technical
usage).
: For themes emphasized
by Charles
Sanders Peirce see Pragmaticism.
Pragmatism, as a school of
philosophy, is a
collection of many different ways of
thinking. Given the diversity among thinkers
and the variety among schools of thought that
have adopted this term over the years, the
term pragmatism has become all but
meaningless in the absence of further
qualification. ...
- On a New List of Categories
On a New List of
Categories is a paper by Charles
Sanders Peirce, presented to the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences on 14 May 1867 and
published in its Proceedings the
following year, that proposes to revise the
fundamental metaphysical categories of
philosophy, as previously given by Aristotle, Kant, Hegel, and others. ...
- Islamic Philosophy
Islamic Philosophy
is a part of the Islamic studies, and is a
longstanding attempt to create harmony
between faith, reason or Philosophy, and the
religious teachings of Islam. A
Muslim engaged in this field is called a
Muslim philosopher.
The
attempt to fuse Religion and Philosophy is
difficult because there are no clear
preconditions. On the other hand, classical
religious believers have a set of religious
principles that they hold to be fact. Indeed,
due to these divergent goals and views, some
hold that one cannot simultaneously be a
philosopher and a true adherent of Islam, which is believed to
be a revealed religion by
its adherents. In this view, all attempts at
synthesis ultimately fail.
However, others
believe that a synthesis between Islam and Philosophy is
possible. One way to find a synthesis is to
use philosophical arguments to prove that
one's preset religious principles are true.
This is a common technique found in the
writings of many religious traditions,
including Judaism, Christianity and Islam, but this is not
generally accepted as Philosophy-proper by
philosophers. Another way to find a synthesis
is to abstain from holding as true any
religious principles of one's faith at all,
unless one independently comes to those
conclusions from a philosophical analysis.
However, this is not generally accepted as
being faithful to one's religion by adherents
of that religion. A third, rarer and more
difficult path is to apply analytical
philosophy to one's own religion. In this
case a religious person would also be a
philosopher, by asking questions such as:
*What is the nature of God How do we
know that God exists?
*What is the nature of
revelation ...
- Ancient Philosophy
Ancient Western
Philosophy:
The key figure in
transforming early Greek philosophy into
a unified and continuous project - the one
still being pursued today - is Socrates, who studied
under several Sophists and then spent much of
his life, we are told, engaging everyone in
Athens in discussion trying to determine
whether anyone had a very good idea what they
were talking about, especially when they
talked about important matters like justice,
beauty and truth. ...
- Hindu Philosophy
Hindu Philosophy (one
of the main divisions of Indian Philosophy) is
traditionally seen through the prism of six
different systems that are listed here. The
characteristic of this Philosophy is to
consider being (consciousness)
together with the other issues.
Nyaya:
The Nyaya school
of philosophical speculation is based on a
text called the Nyaya Sutra. It was written by
Gautama, also known as Akshapada, (not to
be confused with Gautama, the founder of Buddhism), ...
- Indian Philosophy
The term Indian
Philosophy may refer to any of
several traditions of philosophical thought,
including:
* Hindu Philosophy
* Buddhist
Philosophy
* Jain Philosophy
...
- Buddhist Philosophy
The teachings of Gautama Buddha (6th century BC -
5th century BC), because of its non-theistic
nature, have been described as more of a Philosophy than a Religion. However,
adherents of Buddhism contest that
even these two categories lack in defining
Buddhist teaching. For them, Buddhism
presents itself as way to attain
understanding and direct insight into the
true nature of existence, and not mere
speculation nor a theoretical basis of a
branch of knowledge.
The early history of
Buddhist thought in India can better be
characterized as a shift from primarily moral and religious
teachings concerned with the attainment of enlightenment to a more
comprehensive system of thought, in the midst
of which philosophical schools and systems
gradually came into existence.
This
process is wound up with internal dynamics of
the Buddhist religion as well as with more
general developments in ancient Indian
intellectual environs. ...
- Chinese Philosophy
Chinese Philosophy
has a history of several thousand years. Its
origins are often traced back to the Yi Jing (commonly spelled "I Ching"), an ancient compendium
of divination, which
introduced some of the most fundamental terms
of Chinese Philosophy. Its age can only be
estimated, but it certainly draws from an
oracular tradition that goes back to Neolithic
times.
Early Shang thought was based upon a
cyclic notion of time, corresponding to the
seasons. This notion, which remained relevant
throughout Chinese history, represents a
fundamental distinction from Western
Philosophy, in which the dominant view of
time is a linear progression. During the
Shang, fate could be manipulated by
the great deity Shang
Di (ch. ??; pinyin
shang4di4), most frequently
translated as "Lord on High". Ancestor worship was also
present, as was human and animal
sacrifice.
When the Shang were overthrown
by the Zhou, a new
political, religious and philosophical
concept was introduced called the "mandate of
heaven". This mandate was said to be
taken when rulers became unworthy of their
position, and provided a shrewd justification
for Zhou rule. During this period,
archaeological evidence points to an increase
in literacy and a partial shift away from the
faith placed Shang Di, with ancestor worship
becoming commonplace and a more worldly
orientation coming to the fore.
In around
500 BC, after the Zhou state weakend
and China moved in to the Spring and
Autumn Period, the classic period of
Chinese philosophy began (it is an
interesting fact that this date nearly
coincides with the emergence of the first
Greek philosophers). This is known as the Hundred
Schools of Thought. Of the many schools
founded at this time and during the
subsequent Warring States Period (the
so-called ?? (bai3 jia1; "100
schools"), the four most influential ones
were Confucianism, Taoism, Mohism and
Legalism.
Mohist schools, such as the Logicians, were largely
quashed during the short Qin
Dynasty, where Legalism was the official
philosophy. Legalism remained influential
until the emperors of the Han
Dynasty adopted Daoism and later
Confucianism as official doctrine. These
latter two became the determining forces of
Chinese thought until the 20th century, with
the introduction Buddhist philosophy
negotiated largely through perceived
similarities with Daoism.
The respective
influences of Daoism and Confucianism are
often described this way: "Chinese are
Confucianist during the day, while they are
Daoists at night". Moreover, many Chinese mandarins were
government officials in the daily life
and poets (or painters) in their
spare time.
When the Communist
Party took over power, previous schools
of thought, excepting notably Legalism, were
denounced as backward, but their influence on
Chinese thought remains.
Although the
individual philosophical schools differ
considerably, they nevertheless share a
common subset of concepts derived from the Yi
Jing: The tai ji (Great
Heavenly Axis) forms a unity, from which
two antagonistic concepts, yin and
yang originate. The
word yin originally referred to a
hillside facing away from the sun.
Philosophically, it stands the gloomy,
passive, female concept, whereas
yang (the hillside facing the sun)
stands for the bright, active, male concept.
Both concepts, though antagonistic, are also
complementary and the present domination of
one implies the future rise of the other, as
moon's phases (this is the meaning of the
well-known yin-yang figures).
See also:
Chinese Classic
Texts, Eastern Philosophy, Chinese History,
Religion in
China
Some content
adapted from the Wikinfo
article "Chinese_philosophy" under the GNU
Free Documentation License. ...
- Hellenistic Philosophy
Please contribute to this
page
Often overlooked, the time after
the great ancient philosophers was rich
with philosophical activity, rediscovery of
ancient writing, and challenges to
tradition.
Hellenistic Philosophers:
*Cicero
*Zeno of Citium
*Epictetus
*Epicurus
*Lucretius
*Empedocles
*The
Neo-Platonists:
**Ammonius Saccas
**Plotinus
**Porphyry
**Proclus
**Iamblichus
*Marcus
Aurelius
Schools of Thought in Hellenistic
Period:
*Christianity
*Cynicism
*Epicureanism
*Hedonism
*Eclecticism
*Neo-Platonism
*Skepticism
*Stoicism
The spread
of Christian
Philosophy through the Roman world slowly
brought an end to the characteristic Greek
and Helinistic philosophy, ushering in the
beginnings of what is generally called Medieval
Philosophy, or sometimes called
philosophy in the Dark
Ages of Europe.
Some content adapted from the Wikinfo article "Hellenistic_philosophy" under
the GNU
Free Documentation License. ...
- Medieval Philosophy
The Philosophy of the era
now known as the Middle Ages (the period
roughly extending from the fall of the Roman Empire to the
Renaissance) is a
widely varied period in the history of philosophical thought.
However, one defining feature which
distinguishes this period, in the western
world, is the degree to which competing or
contradictory philosophical views and systems
were brought into dialogue with each other.
Logic and God:
Medieval
philosophy was greatly concerned with the
nature of God, and the application of Aristotle's logic and thought to every
area of life. If God exists at all, surely He
is the most important feature of the
universe, and therefore worthy of study. ...
- Christian Philosophy
Christian Philosophy
is a two-millennia tradition of rational
thought as applied to the Christian tradition. No
survey article can do more than touch on the
most major figures and traditions, each of
which are covered in articles of their own.
Also there has been considerable interaction
with Jewish Philosophy and Islamic
Philosophy that continues into the modern
era, e.g. Modern
Islamic Philosophy explores many issues
in common with Modern
Catholic Philosophy.
Central Figures:
*Jesus
*St.
Paul
*Augustine of Hippo
*Aquinas and Francis
Bacon
The latter two are major figures
in Scholastic philosophy which
led to:
*Renaissance
Philosophy - emerging from
Scholasticism
*The Reformation, or Martin Luther and
Erasmus notably
*The The
Enlightenment, by authors who were part
of or reacting to Christian norms
More Modern
Christian Philosophy is effectively
indistinguishable from secular Philosophy in most
methodological respects, although some major
figures, e.g. Pope John Paul II, have taken
issue with some of these as unethical. ...
- Jewish Philosophy
Jewish Philosophy is
the conjunction between serious study of Philosophy and Jewish
Theology.
Early
Jewish Philosophy was heavilly influenced by
the Philosophy of Plato, Aristotle and Islamic
Philosophy. Many early medieval Jewish
philosophers (700s to 1000 CE) were
especially influenced by the Islamic
Motazilites; they denied all limiting
attributes of God and were champions of
God's unity and justice).
Over time
Aristotle came to be thought of as the
philosopher par excellence among Jewish
thinkers thinkers. This tendency toward
Aristotle was no less marked in the Islamic,
the Christian Byzantine and the
Latin-Christian schools of thought.
Karaite
Philosophy:
A schismatic break-off
from rabbinic Judaism, Karaism, developed its
own form of philosophy, a Karaite version of
the Islamic Kal?m. Early Karaites based their
philosophy on the Islamic Motazilite Kal?m; some later
Karaites, such as Aaron ben Elijah of
Nicomedia (fourteenth century), reverts, in
his Etz Hayyim (Hebrew,
"Tree of Life") to the views of Aristotle.
Avicebron, Solomon ibn
Gabirol:
The Jewish poet—philosopher
Solomon ibn Gabirol (died about 1070 CE) was
influenced by Plato. In
Gabirol's work Plato is the only philosopher
referred to by name. Characteristic of the
Philosophy of both is the conception of a
Middle Being between God and the world,
between species and individual. Aristotle had
already formulated the objection to the
Platonic theory of ideas, that it lacked an
intermediary or third being between God and
the universe, between form and matter. This
"third man," this link between incorporeal
substances (ideas) and idealess bodies
(matter), is, with Philo, the "Logos"; with
Gabirol it is the divine will. Philo gives
the problem an intellectual aspect; while
Gabirol conceives it as a matter of volition,
approximating thus to such modern thinkers as
Schopenhauer and Wundt.
Gabirol's
Philosophy made little impression on Judaism.
Among Jews he is esteemed as a poet; while
Christian Scholasticism, in the persons of
its two chief representatives, Albertus
Magnus and his pupil, Thomas Aquinas, defers
to him quite as frequently and
gratefully.
Jewish Mysticism, Kabbalah:
A separate
entry exists for Kabbalah. A fundamental
difference between the Kabbalists and ...
- The Presocratics
Pr?socratiques Vorsokratiker
The history of Philosophy in the west
begins with the Greeks, and particularly with a
group of philosophers commonly called the
"pre-Socratics", so named because they
appeared before Socrates brought dramatic
change to philosophy. ...
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