Philosophy

What is Philosophy? This question is as “philosophical” and profound as any of the big questions philosophers ask. The diverse, cultural activity of Philosophy is the historical study of the meaning and justification of beliefs about the most general and universal aspects of all things. It is a study carried out, not only by experimentation and careful observation, but also by formulating problems carefully, or logically. By composing arguments and offering solutions and counter-arguments to those arguments, philosophers engage in a conversation about the greatest ideas. It's the critical, speculative, analytical study of “The Big Questions” about Existence, Truth, Knowledge, Morality, Beauty, and Purpose, also with subtle reflection on the methods used in these questions.

• Where did we come from?
• How is our knowledge even possible?
• What does it mean to be moral in this world?
• Who decides what is beautiful or useful?
• Is there a deeper meaning of our life?

Getting Started

If you're already interested in studying Philosophy, it may be that you want to improve the way you live - or the way you think. Maybe you wish to get acquainted with one of the most original areas of human thought. Why people are motivated to “do Philosophy” is as varied as the people doing it, and their ideas are as interesting as their personal lives - it's all important in understanding how philosophers think, which is understanding how we think.

It is also important to know Philosophy is a discipline, one which draws on knowledge just about all of us have. Philosophy definitely makes use of careful experimentation and observations, though it may also be an activity of interpreting various aspects of those experiments and observations. To do Philosophy is to examine the meaning and justification of our most basic and fundamental thoughts, even our most cherished beliefs. Basically, Philosophy concerns those aspects of the Universe which are most commonly found and studied, the things and properties which are really everywhere - the universal aspects of all things.

Philosophical Method

Doing Philosophy can also follow philosophical methodology, the study and description of how to do what is arguably the “Mother” of all the Arts and Sciences. The basic feature is questioning “given” ideas, things assumed to be true, or ideas handed down to us. One's motivation in studying Philosophy or Science comes into play, and we often find ourselves believing in things we do not understand, whether it is a question of Theology/Religion, our own Subjectivity, Nature, Society, or Ethics. We may not even understand why we believe something, and so using philosophical methods is a way of getting deeper. For example: How do some things cause other things? What is my Mind? What is Reality? What is Beauty? Why should I be good?

• Doubt and Wonder: As Aristotle wrote in his “Metaphysics”, Philosophy depends greatly upon our basic capacity to wonder about what's “out there”. Philosophizing may begin with some simple doubts about accepted beliefs, and our initial philosophizing may arise from our suspicion.
• The Nature of the Problem: Next, we must formulate our questions to be answered, our problems to be solved, with a working assumption. The more clearly our questions are stated, the easier it is for us to identify the issues, and eventually, the solutions.
• Find a Clear Solution: As a result, we have a theory, that is, a definition or analysis, which constitutes an attempt to solve the philosophical problem. Sometimes a philosophical theory can be quite brief, and sometimes very complex, requiring a book-length explanation.
• Support the Solution: We can use Logic to construct “arguments” as a set of statements which support our theory. The “conclusion” is what “follows” from these “premises”. Philosophical arguments are like bundles of reasons, the premises, and the claim, or claims, they ultimately support, the conclusion.

Philosophy is, therefore, often a quest for the best arguments. A good argument is a clear, organized, sound statement, the “reasons” which cure the original doubts in a problem. However, in Philosophy, something which concerns the most fundamental aspects of the Universe, the experts rarely agree. So, philosophical criticism, including scientific criticism, is also about constructing “counter-arguments” and “refutations” to engage someone else's arguments. This is a part of what makes Philosophy social and enjoyable...at least when we're winning the argument!

A History of Ideas

All civilizations around the world have considered these same questions in one form or another, and each has built their own philosophical traditions based upon each other's works. Though there is a rich borrowing and respect among philosophers from various times and places, Philosophy may be usefully divided into general “styles” based loosely on geography, that is Western, Middle Eastern, African, and Eastern. The term “Philosophy” alone, dominated by a European and American academic context, usually refers to the traditions of Western Philosophy, and these traditions were by no means the only way of philosophizing throughout History.^[1] Originally^[2], “Philosophy” was a Western term, and meant “the love of wisdom.” Philo- comes from the Greek word philein, meaning to love, and -sophy comes from the Greek sophia, or wisdom. “Philosopher” replaced the word “Sophist” (from sophoi), which was used to describe “wise men,” teachers of Rhetoric, important in Athenian Democracy, but Sophists are now considered pseudo-philosophers. In our time, though, the term “Philosophy” has since become widespread.

Popularly, “philosophy”, is often used to mean any form of wisdom, or any person's perspective on life (as in “my philosophy of life”), or basic principles behind a method of achieving something (as in “my philosophy about American Politics”). So, it is important to distinguish between “Philosophy” as a formal and historical study and “my philosophy” as a set of (often quick and loose) opinions. Historically, the scope of Philosophy covered virtually all intellectual endeavors. It has since come to cover only the study of an especially abstract, non-experimental intellectual endeavor, using its still connected subdisciplines as evidence-building specialities. As mentioned above, Philosophy is a notoriously difficult word to define, and the question, “What is Philosophy?”, has vexed many a young student and wise teacher as well.^[3]

So, this general world-wide tendency to ask big questions about the nature of things has a very long history, as well as a long study of it's own history. Philosophy has been practiced in every culture, during every era, and in every manner imaginable. Only centuries ago, the academic discipline of Philosophy still included the now separate “departments” studied individually, that is, all of the Science, Social Science, and Humanities departments. It was all Philosophy until relatively recently, vast areas of intimate, historical connections in thought between disciplines, cultures, and geographical areas.^[4]

Further Reading

Navigation used on GetWiki

Expanded Broad Traditions

• African Philosophy
• Eastern Philosophy
• Chinese Philosophy
• Buddhist Philosophy
• Hindu Philosophy
• Indian Philosophy
• Middle Eastern Philosophy
• Islamic Philosophy
• Jewish Philosophy
• Christian Philosophy
• Western Philosophy
• The Presocratics
• Ancient Philosophy
• Hellenistic Philosophy
• Gnosticism
• Medieval Philosophy
• Renaissance Philosophy
• Modern Philosophy
• Contemporary Philosophy
• New Philosophy

Major Areas and Connections

• Metaphysics: With Ontology and Teleology, very abstract areas, there are direct applications into Physics, Astronomy, Logic and Mathematics, and even Computer Science.
• Epistemology: Connections from Physics to Psychology can be found, a study of how we know things, and it defines Knowledge, Evidence, and Justified Belief.
• Philosophy of Science: Discussion of the underpinnings of the Scientific Method, among other scientific topics.
• Aesthetics: With Art History, this helps interpret the meaning and usefulness of the Arts.
• Ethics: From Applied Ethics, to Bioethics and Political Philosophy, connecting the work of nearly all philosophers.

Additional Specialized Areas

• Philosophy of Education: Progressive Education has been promoted by philosophers, and has had a profound impact on educational practices in the last centuries, expanded to most of the developed world.
• Philosophy of Law/Jurisprudence: Provides us with a deeper understanding of the theoretical, conceptual underpinnings of Governments and legislative action.
• Philosophical Counseling: A growing profession devoted to applying Philosophy, rather than Psychology or Psychiatry, to the problems of life, and is especially related to Religion and Ethics in a time of ever more complex relations.

Scholarship by M.R.M. Parrott

Dynamism: Life: Volume II: Biological Chemistry and Epistemology Philosophy and Science Treatise ©2001, 2010-2011 M.R.M. Parrott First Published: Jun 2011 Published by rimric press 0-9746106-5-8 | 978-0-9746106-5-8 216 Pages, Paperback & eBook, 2025 2025 Edition Extras: Afterword, Notes on the Text and Cover Art Amazon Paperback (author) Barnes & Noble Paperback (author) Waterstones Paperback (author)

Dynamism: Force: Volume I: Quantum Physics and Ontology Philosophy and Science Treatise ©2001-2004 M.R.M. Parrott First Published: Feb 05/Jun 11 Published by rimric press 0-9746106-1-5 | 978-0-9746106-1-0 204 Pages, Paperback & eBook, 2025 2025 Edition Extras: Both Prefaces, Afterword, Notes on the Text and Cover Art Amazon Paperback (author) Barnes & Noble Paperback (author) Waterstones Paperback (author)

Synthetic A Priori: Philosophical Interviews Interviews, Discussion ©1998-1999 M.R.M. Parrott First Published: 99,00,02,08,11 Published by rimric press 0-9662635-6-1 | 978-0-9662635-6-5 232 Pages, Paperback & eBook, 2025 2025 Edition Extras: Both Prefaces, Notes on the Text and Cover Art Amazon Paperback (author) Barnes & Noble Paperback (author) Waterstones Paperback (author)

The Pure Critique of Reason: Kant and Subjectivity Philosophical Monograph ©1998-1999 M.R.M. Parrott First Published: Oct 2002 Published by rimric press 0-9662635-5-3 | 978-0-9662635-5-8 148 Pages, Paperback & eBook, 2025 2025 Edition Extras: Afterword, Notes on the Text Amazon Paperback (author) Barnes & Noble Paperback (author) Waterstones Paperback (author)

The Empiricism of Subjectivity: Deleuze and Consciousness Philosophical Monograph ©1996-1997 M.R.M. Parrott First Published: Oct 2002 Published by rimric press 0-9662635-3-7 | 978-0-9662635-3-4 128 Pages, Paperback & eBook, 2025 2025 Edition Extras: Afterword Amazon Paperback (author) Barnes & Noble Paperback (author) Waterstones Paperback (author)

The Ethos of Modernity: Foucault and Enlightenment Philosophical Monograph ©1995-1996 M.R.M. Parrott First Published: May 96/Oct 02 Published by rimric press 0-9662635-2-9 | 978-0-9662635-2-7 160 Pages, Paperback & eBook, 2025 2025 Edition Extras: Afterword Amazon Paperback (author) Barnes & Noble Paperback (author) Waterstones Paperback (author)

The Generation of 'X': Philosophical Essays 1991-1995 Academic Papers ©1991-1995 M.R.M. Parrott First Published: Oct 2002 Published by rimric press 0-9662635-0-2 | 978-0-9662635-0-3 160 Pages, Paperback & eBook, 2025 2025 Edition Extras: Afterword Amazon Paperback (author) Barnes & Noble Paperback (author) Waterstones Paperback (author)

References

1. Eastern Philosophy, or that of Asia, includes the thought of Gautama Buddha, Bodhidharma, Lao Zi, Confucius, Zhuang Zi, and Mao Zedong. Middle Eastern Philosophy is largely based on the interpretations of prophets of the Abrahamic religions, such as Islamic Philosophy, Christian Philosophy, and Jewish Philosophy. African Philosophy is based on the diverse historical tribes of Africa. The Western tradition began with the Greeks, including the works of Plato and Aristotle, then proceeded into deep explorations through Thomas Aquinas, René Descartes, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, G.W.F. Hegel, Friedrich Nietzsche, and many others..
2. The introduction of the term “Philosophy” was ascribed to the Greek thinker Pythagoras (via Diogenes Laertius: “De vita et moribus philosophorum”, I, 12; Cicero: “Tusculanae disputationes”, V, 8-9). This ascription is certainly based on a passage in a lost work of Herakleides Pontikos, a disciple of Aristotle. It is considered to be part of the widespread Pythagoras legends of this time. The term “Philosophy” was not in widespread use before the time of Plato..
3. The amount of philosophical writing on most philosophers is ever-growing. The introductions to original language and translated works usually suggest a variety of secondary literature, as do an endless array of websites. To explain and interpret the work of major thinkers is often to walk a line which crosses into oversimplification, even parody, if one is not careful. Due to the vast and fundamental nature and ambition of Philosophy, there has been some disagreement over how one even sits down to read it, and any one philosopher alone is insufficient to achieve a balanced view of Philosophy. In recent years, much work has been done to recover from variously distorted and incorrect interpretations stemming from Anglo-American academics and certain free online encyclopedias. Therefore, the best resource on a philosopher is that philosopher, along with one's own patience in study. Philosophy is a lifetime pursuit..
4. Note, this GetWiki website is a small collection of Philosophy articles compared to the much larger sites. This is intentional, and partly because editorial effort has been made over the years by M.R.M. Parrott to avoid the clutter, dithering, and over-explaining found elsewhere online and in academic settings. Classifications such as those herein can oversimplify Philosophy, but they serve as a springboard to further your own study and intellectual discovery....

External Links

• The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• M.R.M. Parrott, editor of GetWiki, with books in Philosophy including “The Generation of X” (1995), “The Ethos of Modernity” (1996), “The Empiricism of Subjectivity” (1997), “The Pure Critique of Reason” (1999), “Synthetic A Priori” (1999), “Dynamism: Volume I: Force” (2005), “Dynamism: Volume II: Life” (2011)