Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (27 August 1770 - 14 November 1831, and pronounced: “Heygl”) was a German philosopher perhaps most remembered today for the “Master-Slave Dialectic”, though Hegel sought to undo Dualism common in Modern Philosophy. Like Immanuel Kant, Hegel developed a vast and comprehensive philosophical system, an “Absolute Idealism”, and with Johann Fichte and Friedrich Schelling, founded a German Idealism. Hegel's life spanned the Enlightenment and the Romantic movements in Germany, and his was a Philosophy shaped by the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. Hegel's popular lectures and later academic appointments, especially as Chair of Philosophy and Rector at University of Berlin, made him prominent intellectual figure. Like many philosophers, Hegel's influence has been both profound and divisive, and his followers even split into rival “Right” and “Left” Hegelian camps, with the Right Hegelians being his direct successors in academia. The Left Hegelians, or “Young Hegelians”, included Ludwig Feuerbach and Karl Marx, adapting Hegel's dialectical method for their own critiques and purposes. However, to some, like Arthur Schopenhauer, Hegel's Philosophy was seen as a “colossal piece of mystification”^[1], while Allen W. Wood declared, “Hegel's great positive achievements as a philosopher do not lie where he thought they did”. In the Twentieth Century, Hegel's work, perhaps mainly in Marxist and Nietzschean forms, was another basis for Critical Theory, Phenomenology, and Existentialism. Hegel's influence extended across Metaphysics, Political Philosophy, Aesthetics, and the Philosophy of Religion.

Life and Works

1770 - 1800

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was born on 27 August 1770 in Stuttgart, capital of the Duchy of Württemberg in the Holy Roman Empire (now southwestern Germany), and was known as Wilhelm to his close family. His father, Georg Ludwig Hegel (1733-1799), was Secretary to the Revenue Office at the Court of Karl Eugen, Duke of Württemberg. Hegel's mother, Maria Magdalena Louisa Hegel (née Fromm, 1741-1783), was the daughter of a lawyer at the High Court of Justice at the Württemberg Court of Ludwig Albrecht Fromm (1696-1758). She died when Hegel was thirteen, while Hegel and his father both caught the disease and only narrowly survived. Hegel had a sister, Christiane Luise Hegel (1773-1832), and a brother, Georg Ludwig (1776-1812), who perished as an officer during Napoleon's 1812 Russian campaign.

Hegel went to the German School by three, then Latin School two years later. In 1776, he entered Stuttgart's Eberhard-Ludwigs-Gymnasium and read voraciously, copying lengthy extracts in his diary. Authors he read included the poet Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock and writers associated with the Enlightenment, such as Christian Garve and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. His studies concluded with his graduation speech, “The abortive state of art and scholarship in Turkey.”

At the age of eighteen, Hegel entered the Tübinger Stift, a Protestant seminary attached to University of Tübingen, where he had as roommates the poet and philosopher Friedrich Hölderlin and the philosopher Friedrich Schelling. Sharing a dislike for what they regarded as the restrictive environment of the Seminary, the three became close friends and mutually influenced each other's ideas. All three greatly admired Hellenic civilization, and Hegel additionally steeped himself in Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Lessing during this time. They watched the unfolding of the French Revolution with shared enthusiasm. Although the violence of the 1793 Reign of Terror dampened Hegel's hopes, he continued to identify with the moderate Girondin faction and never lost his commitment to the principles of 1789, which he expressed by drinking a toast to the Storming of the Bastille every fourteenth of July. Schelling and Hölderlin immersed themselves in theoretical debates on Kantian Philosophy, and Hegel envisaged his future as a “man of letters” who would make the abstruse ideas of philosophers accessible to a wider public.

During this period, he composed Life of Jesus and a book-length manuscript titled “The Positivity of the Christian Religion.” Hölderlin would exert an important influence on Hegel's thought, and in Frankfurt, under the influence of early Romanticism, he underwent a reversal, exploring in particular the mystical experience of love as the true essence of Religion. In 1797, an unpublished and unsigned manuscript of “The Oldest Systematic Program of German Idealism”, which may have been authored by Hegel, Schelling, and Hölderlin together. Hegel composed the essay, “Fragments on Religion and Love”, and in 1799, he wrote another essay, “The Spirit of Christianity and Its Fate”, unpublished during his lifetime. Also in 1799, Hegel's father died, leaving him a small inheritance.

1801 - 1816

Hegel had come to Jena at the encouragement of Schelling, who then held the position of Extraordinary Professor at University of Jena. Hegel secured a position at the University as a Privatdozent (unsalaried lecturer) after submitting his inaugural dissertation, De Orbitis Planetarum, in which he briefly criticized mathematical arguments which assert there must exist a planet between Mars and Jupiter. Unbeknownst to Hegel, Giuseppe Piazzi had discovered the dwarf planet Ceres within that orbit on 1 January 1801. Later that year, Hegel completed The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's System of Philosophy. He lectured on “Logic and Metaphysics” and gave lectures with Schelling on an “Introduction to the Idea and Limits of True Philosophy”, also facilitating a “philosophical disputorium.” In 1802, Schelling and Hegel founded the journal Critical Journal of Philosophy (Kritische Journal der Philosophie) to which they contributed until their collaboration ended when Schelling left for Würzburg in 1803.

By 1805, the University promoted Hegel to the unsalaried position of Extraordinary Professor after he wrote a letter to the poet and Minister of Culture, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, protesting the promotion of his philosophical adversary Jakob Friedrich Fries ahead of him. Hegel attempted to enlist the help of the poet and translator Johann Heinrich Voß to obtain a post at the renascent University of Heidelberg, but he failed, and to his chagrin, Fries was in the same year made Ordinary Professor (salaried), anyway.

With his finances drying up quickly, Hegel was under great pressure to deliver his book, the long-promised introduction to his own philosophical system, and he had put the finishing touches on The Phenomenology of Spirit (Phänomenologie des Geistes, 1807) as Napoleon engaged Prussian troops on 14 October 1806 in the Battle of Jena. Hegel wrote his impression in a letter to Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer, saying, “I saw the Emperor - this world-soul (weltseele) - riding out of the city on reconnaissance. It is indeed a wonderful sensation to see such an individual, who, concentrated here at a single point, astride a horse, reaches out over the world and masters it.” Yet, the following February marked the birth of Hegel's natural or illegitimate son, Georg Ludwig Friedrich Fischer (1807-1831), who was the result of an affair between Hegel and his landlady, Christiana Burkhardt (née Fischer).

Hegel traveled to Bamberg and stayed with Niethammer to oversee the proofs of the Phenomenology, which was being printed there, and although he tried to obtain another professorship, even writing Goethe to help secure a permanent position replacing a professor of Botany, he was unable to find a permanent position and needed money to support his son. Instead, he became Editor of the local pro-French newspaper, Bamberger Zeitung, with the help of Niethammer, while Christiana and Ludwig remained in Jena. Hegel extolled the virtues of Napoleon and often editorialized the Prussian accounts of the war, while becoming an important person in Bamberg social life, often involved in local gossip, and he pursued his passions for cards, fine eating, and the local Bamberg beer. However, Hegel bore contempt for what he saw as “old Bavaria”, frequently referring to it as “Barbaria” and he dreaded “hometowns” like Bamberg would lose their autonomy under the new Bavarian State.

After an investigation in September 1808 by the Bavarian State for potential violations of security measures in publishing French troop movements, Hegel wrote to Niethammer, now a high official in Munich, pleading for Niethammer's help in securing a teaching position. With the help of Niethammer, Hegel was appointed headmaster of a different gymnasium in Nuremberg in November 1808, a post he held until 1816. While in Nuremberg, Hegel adapted The Phenomenology of Spirit for use in the classroom. Part of his remit was to teach a class called “Introduction to Knowledge of the Universal Coherence of the Sciences.”

In 1811, Hegel married Marie Helena Susanna von Tucher (1791-1855), the eldest daughter of a Nuremberg senator. This period also saw the publication of his second major work, The Science of Logic (Wissenschaft der Logik, 3 vols, 1812, 1813, 1816), and the birth of two sons, Karl Friedrich Wilhelm (1813-1901) and Immanuel Thomas Christian (1814-1891).

1816 - 1831

With growing popularity as a professor and more exposure, Hegel started to receive offers for posts from the Universities of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Humboldt in Berlin, and Heidelberg. Hegel chose Heidelberg, where he moved in 1816. The next year, his 10 year old son Ludwig joined the family after having spent time in an orphanage following the death of his mother, Christiana. Also in 1817, Hegel published Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline as a summary of his Philosophy for students attending his lectures at Heidelberg.

While in Heidelberg Hegel first lectured on the Philosophy of Art, and in 1818 accepted a renewed offer of the Chair of Philosophy at University of Berlin, which had remained vacant since Johann Gottlieb Fichte's death in 1814. His Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1821) followed not too long after, and Hegel devoted himself primarily to delivering lectures later published posthumously from student notes, on the Philosophy of Fine Art, the Philosophy of Religion, the Philosophy of History, and the History of Philosophy. Hegel's grasp of Plato and Aristotle was remarkable, despite the lack of Modern research and source literature. In spite of his notoriously poor delivery, the growth of the “Hegelian School” was underway, and his fame spread as his lectures attracted students from all over Germany and beyond, all the while he and a few pupils were being watched by the Interior Minister of Prussia.

Hegel enjoyed travels to to Weimar, where he met with Goethe for the last time, Brussels, the Netherlands, Leipzig, Vienna, Prague, and Paris. He was appointed Rector of the University in October 1829, but his term ended in September 1830. Hegel was deeply disturbed by the riots for reform in Berlin in that year. In 1831 Frederick William III of Prussia decorated Hegel with the Order of the Red Eagle, 3rd Class, for his service to the Prussian state. In August 1831, a cholera epidemic reached Berlin and Hegel left the city, taking up lodgings in Kreuzberg. Now in a weak state of health, Hegel seldom went out. As the new semester began in October, Hegel returned to Berlin in the mistaken belief that the epidemic had largely subsided, but by 14 November, Hegel had died from the cholera as well has a likely gastrointestinal disease. Heinrich Heine is said to have noted that Hegel's last words were, “There was only one man who ever understood me, and even he didn't understand me.” In accordance with his wishes, Hegel was buried in the Dorotheenstadt Cemetery next to Fichte and Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand Solger. Hegel's first son, Ludwig Fischer, had died shortly before, while serving with the Dutch Army in Jakarta (Batavia), and the news of his death never reached his father. Early that following year, Hegel's sister Christiane died from drowing by suicide. Hegel's two remaining sons, Karl, who became a historian, and Immanuel, who followed a theological path, lived long and safeguarded their father's manuscripts and letters, and produced editions of his works.

Philosophy: A Critical View

Hegel was a quintessential academic whose lengthy passages of dense and obtuse language are enough to confuse even the most determined philosopher. There are a number of such thinkers who are drawn to this style of philosophizing, made up of interminable and mystifying explanations which seem to yield little to no actual deep philosophical import. It is Philosophy as a performance piece. As in Shakespeare's (or Marlowe's, just saying) Much Ado About Nothing (circa 1598-1600), Don Pedro captures the frustration many of us have with this style of thinking as he refers to the ridiculous Dogberry dismissively: “This learned constable is too cunning to be understood”.

Mind and Spirit

The German Geist has a wide range of meanings. In a Hegelian sense, it denotes the human Mind in contrast to Nature, or the logical Idea, the Intellect, an Essence of Freedom. This concept of Spirit/Mind is really an appropriation and transformation of the Aristotelian concept of energeia. Hegel divided the subjective Spirit into Anthropology, which is “Soul” or Spirit still mired in Nature, Phenomenology, which is the relation between consciousness and the emergence of inter-subjective rationality, and Psychology, which is what we could call Theory of Knowledge today. Thus, Hegel's re-definition of philosophically common terms and the re-arrangement of otherwise uncontroversial topics creates confusion.

The Objective Spirit is how the human Spirit objectifies itself in its social and historical activities, and institutionalizes Freedom. This is the foundation of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, the essence of Spirit, and the Telos of History. Hegel himself acknowledges an ambiguity in the concept of “natural right” (naturrecht) between meaning “a right present in an immediately natural way”, and a right “determined by the nature of the thing. Lacking clarity there, the relationship between Hegel's Philosophy of Right to Modern Liberalism is at least complex, but certainly opaque. He saw Liberalism as a valuable and characteristic expression of the Modern World, however, it carried the danger within itself to undermine its own values.

Master and Servant

From The Phenomenology of Spirit Hegel presented the Herrschaft und Knechtschaft in German, which can be rendered as “Master and Servant”, rather than “Master and Slave”, and here again, we find an appropriation of Aristotle, who had already analyzed the Master-Servant relationship in the Politics (1253a24-1256b39) and Oeconomica. The ensuing “dialectic” is long and hard, described by Hegel himself as a “path of despair” in which self-consciousness finds itself to be, over and again, in error. It is the self-concept of consciousness itself that is tested in the domain of experience, and where that concept is not adequate, self-consciousness “suffers this violence at its own hands, and brings to ruin its own restricted satisfaction.” Because consciousness always includes self-consciousness, there are no given Objects of direct awareness not already mediated by thought.

Further analysis of the structure of self-consciousness reveals that both the social and conceptual stability of the experiential world depend upon networks of reciprocal recognition. Another way to put this is to say that Hegel's Phenomenology takes up Kant's philosophical project of investigating the capacities and limits of Reason. Hegel tried to show that the search for an externally objective criterion of Truth is a fool's errand, yet again, we have an appropriation, this time from Kant.

Science and Logic

Not surprisingly, Hegel's concept of Logic differs greatly from that of the ordinary sense of the term. This can be seen, for instance, in such metaphysical definitions of Logic as “the science of things grasped in [the] thoughts that used to be taken to express the essentialities of the things. Hegel presents Logic as a presuppositionless science that investigates the most fundamental thought-determinations (denkbestimmungen) or categories, and so constitutes the basis of Philosophy.

Hegel's inquiry into Logic was to systematize thought as internal self-differentiation, that is, how pure concepts or logical Kantian categories differ from one another in their various relations of implication and interdependence. For instance, in the opening dialectic of Logic, Hegel described a pure being passing back and forth with the concept of nothing, which is entirely unclear, and each immediately vanishes in its opposite.” This movement is the category of becoming.

Poesis and Mystification

Indeed, there is a very real sense that G.W.F. Hegel was “too cunning to be understood”, exhausting the lecture attendee and reader alike with endless circumlocution and equivocation and pontification. Some, though, were not exhausted, but moved and entertained. Ever since, some scholars have made whole lives and careers out of interpreting Hegel, all of them as cunning as their master, and all in vain as a technical institution, for at the end of it nothing has actually been stated clearly which was not to be found in Plato, Aristotle, or Kant. That said, we need to read Hegel at least once, despite what Schopenhauer said, because without Hegel it is hard to see how Marx and Nietzsche, among others, or the Phenomenology and Existentialism movements, might have found as much challenge or inspiration.

My own early essay on Hegel's Religion of Art is apropos, because as a performance piece, Hegel's style of philosophizing is really Poesis itself. It is a style which edifies and uplifts those who enjoy the flowery language and kaleidoscope of meanings and interpretations, the philosophical Poetry rather than the engineering of Metaphysics and Epistemology:

Writings in Chronological Order

Bern, 1793–96

• 1793–94: 'Fragments on Folk Religion and Christianity'
• 1795: 'Life of Jesus'
• 1795–96: 'The Positivity of the Christian Religion'
• 1796–97: 'The Oldest Systematic Program of German Idealism' (authorship disputed)

Frankfurt am Main, 1797–1800

• 1797–98: 'Drafts on Religion and Love'
• 1798: Confidential Letters on the Prior Constitutional Relations of the Wadtlandes (Pays de Vaud) to the City of Bern. A Complete Disclosure of the Previous Oligarchy of the Bern Estates. Translated from the French of a Deceased Swiss [Jean Jacques Cart], with Commentary. Frankfurt am Main, Jäger. (Hegel's translation is published anonymously)
• 1798–1800: 'The Spirit of Christianity and its Fate'
• 1800–02: 'The Constitution of Germany' (draft)

Jena, 1801–07

• 1801: De Orbitis Planetarum; 'The Difference between Fichte's and Schelling's System of Philosophy'
• 1802: 'On the Essence of Philosophical Critique in General and its Relation to the Present State of Philosophy in Particular' (Introduction to the Critical Journal of Philosophy, edited by Schelling and Hegel)
• 1802: 'How Commonsense takes Philosophy, Illustrated by the Works of Mr. Krug'
• 1802 'The Relation of Scepticism to Philosophy. Presentation of its various Modifications and Comparison of the latest with the ancient'
• 1802: 'Faith and Knowledge, or the Reflective Philosophy of Subjectivity in the Completeness of its Forms as Kantian, Jacobian and Fichtean Philosophy'
• 1802–03: 'System of Ethical Life'
• 1803: 'On the Scientific Approaches to Natural Law, its Role within Practical Philosophy and its Relation to the Positive Sciences of Law'
• 1803–04: 'First Philosophy of Spirit (Part III of the System of Speculative Philosophy 1803/4)'
• 1807: The Phenomenology of Spirit

Bamberg, 1807–08

• 1807: 'Preface: On Scientific Cognition' – Preface to his Philosophical System, published with the Phenomenology

Nuremberg, 1808–16

• 1808–16: 'Philosophical Propaedeutic'

Heidelberg, 1816–18

• 1812–13: Science of Logic, Part 1 (Books 1, 2)
• 1816: Science of Logic, Part 2 (Book 3)
• 1817: 'Review of Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi's Works, Volume Three'
• 1817: 'Assessment of the Proceedings of Estates Assembly of the Duchy of Württemberg in 1815 and 1816'
• 1817: Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences, 1st edition

Berlin, 1818–31

• 1820: Elements of the Philosophy of Right, or Natural Law and Political Science in Outline
• 1827: Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences, 2nd rev. edn.
• 1831: Science of Logic, 2nd edn, with extensive revisions to Book 1 (published in 1832)
• 1831: Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences, 3rd rev. edn

Berlin Lectures

• Logic 1818–31: annually
• Philosophy of Nature: 1819–20, 1821–22, 1823–24, 1825–26, 1828, 1830
• Philosophy of Subjective Spirit: 1820, 1822, 1825, 1827–28, 1829–30
• Philosophy of Right: 1818–19, 1819–20, 1821–22, 1822–23, 1824–25, 1831
• Philosophy of World History: 1822–23, 1824–25, 1826–27, 1828–29, 1830–31
• Philosophy of Art: 1820–21, 1823, 1826, 1828–29
• Philosophy of Religion: 1821, 1824, 1827, 1831
• History of Philosophy: 1819, 1820–21, 1823–24, 1825–26, 1827–28, 1829–30, 1831

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Scholarship by M.R.M. Parrott

Synthetic A Priori: Philosophical Interviews Interviews, Discussion ©1998-1999 M.R.M. Parrott First Published: 99,00,02,08,11 Published by rimric press 0-9662635-6-1 | 978-0-9662635-6-5 232 Pages, Paperback & eBook, 2025 2025 Edition Extras: Both Prefaces, Notes on the Text and Cover Art Amazon Paperback (author) Barnes & Noble Paperback (author) Waterstones Paperback (author)

The Generation of 'X': Philosophical Essays 1991-1995 Academic Papers ©1991-1995 M.R.M. Parrott First Published: Oct 2002 Published by rimric press 0-9662635-0-2 | 978-0-9662635-0-3 160 Pages, Paperback & eBook, 2025 2025 Edition Extras: Afterword Amazon Paperback (author) Barnes & Noble Paperback (author) Waterstones Paperback (author)

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• Book, Houlgate, Stephen, 2013, Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, , Bloomsbury Academic.
• Book, Inwood, Michael, A Hegel Dictionary, 1992, Wiley-Blackwell, 978-0631175339.
• Book, Inwood, Michael J., 2013a, Logic – Nature – Spirit, The Bloomsbury Companion to Hegel, Allegra de Laurentiis and Jeffrey Edwards, Bloomsbury Academic.
• Book, Inwood, Michael, 2013b, Reason and Understanding, The Bloomsbury Companion to Hegel, Allegra de Laurentiis and Jeffrey Edwards, Bloomsbury Academic.
• Book, Inwood, Michael, 2018, Editor's Introduction, The Phenomenology of Spirit, , Oxford University Press.
• Book, Jaeschke, Walter, 1990, Reason in Religion: The Foundations of Hegel's Philosophy of Religion, , University of California Press.
• Book, Jaeschke, Walter, 1993, Christianity and Secularity in Hegel's Concept of the State, G. W. F. Hegel: Critical Assessments v. IV, Robert Stern, Routledge.
• Book, Jaeschke, Walter, 2013, Absolute Spirit: Art, Religion and Philosophy, The Bloomsbury Companion to Hegel, Allegra de Laurentiis and Jeffrey Edwards, Bloomsbury Academic.
• Book, Kant, Immanuel, 1998, Critique of Pure Reason, Paul Guyer and Allen W. Wood, Cambridge University Press.
• Book, Kaufmann, Walter, 1959, Hegel: A Reinterpretation, , Doubleday.
• Book, Kroner, Richard, 1971, Introduction, Early Theological Writings, , University of Pennsylvania Press.
• Book, Longuenesse, Béatrice, 2007, Hegel's Critique of Metaphysics, , Cambridge University Press.
• Book, Magee, Glenn Alexander, 2001, Hegel and the Hermetic Tradition, , Cornell University Press, 0-8014-7450-7, books.google.com/books?id=NFIOpySKxw0C.
• Book, Magee, Glenn Alexander, 2011, , The Hegel Dictionary, , , Continuum.
• Book, Marcuse, Herbert, 1999, Reason and Revolution, 100th Anniversary, , Humanity Books.
• Book, Marx, Karl, 1978, Theses On Feuerbach, Marx-Engles Reader, 2nd, Robert C. Tucker, Norton.
• Book, Moland, Lydia L., 1993, Hegel's Aesthetics: The Art of Idealism, , Oxford University Press.
• Journal, Mueller, G.E., 1958, The Hegel Legend of 'Thesis-Antithesis-Synthesis', Journal of the History of Ideas, 19, 3, 411–414, 10.2307/2708045, 2708045.
• Book, Peperzak, Adriaan T., 2001, Modern Freedom: Hegel's Legal, Moral, and Political Philosophy, , Kluwer Academic Publishers.
• Book, Pinkard, Terry, 2000, Hegel – A Biography, , Cambridge University Press.
• Book, Pippin, Robert, 1993, You Can't Get There from Here: Transition Problems in Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, The Cambridge Companion to Hegel, Frederick C. Beiser, Cambridge University Press.
• Book, Pippin, Robert, 2008a, The Absence of Aesthetics in Hegel's Aesthetics, The Cambridge Companion to Hegel and Nineteenth-Century Philosophy, Frederick C. Beiser, Cambridge University Press.
• Book, Pippin, Robert, 2008b, 9. Institutional rationality, Hegel's Practical Philosophy: Rational Agency as Ethical Life, , Cambridge University Press.
• Book, Pippin, Robert, 2019, Hegel's Realm of Shadows: Logic as Metaphysics in “The Science of Logic”, , University of Chicago Press.
• Book, Pöggeler, Otto, 2012, Editorial Introduction, Lectures on Natural Right and Political Science: The First Philosophy of Right, J. Michael Stewart and Peter C. Hodgson, Oxford University Press.
• Web, Redding, Paul, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: 1. Life, Work, and Influence, plato.stanford.edu/entries/hegel/LifWorInf, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 16 September 2022, 2020.
• Book, Rockmore, Tom, Tom Rockmore, 1993, Before and after Hegel: A Historical Introduction to Hegel's Thought, University of California Press.
• Book, Rockmore, Tom, 2013, Feuerbach, Bauer, Marx, and Marxisms, The Bloomsbury Companion to Hegel, Allegra de Laurentiis and Jeffrey Edwards, Bloomsbury Academic.
• Book, Rutter, Benjamin, 2010, Hegel on the Modern Arts, , Cambridge University Press.
• Book, Siep, Ludwig, 2021, Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, , Cambridge University Press.
• Book, Stahl, Titus, 2021, Georg [György] Lukács, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2021 ed.), , plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2021/entries/critical-theory/,.
• Book, Stern, Robert, 2002, Hegel and the 'Phenomenology of Spirit', , Routledge.
• Book, Stern, Robert, 2008, Hegel's Idealism, The Cambridge Companion to Hegel and Nineteenth-Century Philosophy, Frederick C., Cambridge University Press.
• Book, Stone, Alison, 2005, Petrified Intelligence: Nature in Hegel's Philosophy, , SUNY Press.
• Book, Taylor, Charles, 1975, Hegel, , Cambridge University Press.
• Book, Wandschneider, Dieter, 2013, Philosophy of Nature, The Bloomsbury Companion to Hegel, Allegra de Laurentiis and Jeffrey Edwards, Bloomsbury Academic.
• Book, Westphal, Kenneth, 1993, The basic context and structure of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, The Cambridge Companion to Hegel, Frederick C. Beiser, Cambridge University Press.
• Book, Westphal, Kenneth, 2008, Philosophizing about Nature: Hegel's Philosophical Project, The Cambridge Companion to Hegel and Nineteenth-Century Philosophy, Frederick C. Beiser, Cambridge University Press.
• Book, Westphal, Kenneth, 2013, Objective Spirit: Right, Morality, Ethical Life and World History, The Bloomsbury Companion to Hegel, Allegra de Laurentiis and Jeffrey Edwards, Bloomsbury Academic.
• Book, Wicks, Robert L., 1993, Hegel's Aesthetics: An Overview, The Cambridge Companion to Hegel, Frederick C. Beiser, Cambridge University Press.
• Book, Wicks, Robert L., 2020, Simply Hegel, Simply Charly.
• Book, Wolff, Michael, 2013, Science of Logic, The Bloomsbury Companion to Hegel, Allegra de Laurentiis and Jeffrey Edwards, Bloomsbury Academic.
• Book, Wood, Allen W., 1990, Editor's Introduction, Elements of the Philosophy of Right, H.B. Nisbet, Cambridge University Press.
• Book, Wood, Allen W., 1991, , Hegel's Ethical Thought, , Cambridge University Press.
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References

1. Schopenhauer was merciless in describing Hegel as a pseudophilosopher and a “charlatan”.
2. Parrott, M.R.M. “Hegel's Religion of Art as Poesis”, in ''The Generation of 'X': Philosophical Essays 1991-1995” (1995). rimric press..

External Links

• Presentation by Terry Pinkard on Hegel: A Biography, 10 May 2000
• Hegel by HyperText, reference archive on Marxists.org
• Andrew Chitty (University of Sussex)'s Hegel Bibliography
• German Idealism at the IEP
• Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel at the SEP
• Hegel's Aesthetics at the SEP
• Hegel: Social and Political Thought at the IEP
• Hegel's Social and Political Philosophy at the SEP
• Hegel-Archiv {{in lang|de}}
• The Hegel Society of America
• The Hegel Society of Great Britain